大学英语专业词汇学第五章

Chapter 5 Word Meaning and Componential Analysis Having discussed the structure and formation of words, we now move to the meaning of words. In Chapter 1, we touched upon word meaning in brief, in this chapter we will discuss it in more depth in terms of meanings of 'meaning', motivation of meaning, types of meaning and the components of word meaning.

5.1 Word Meaning

It is agreed that a word is the combination of word-form and its meaning. 'Form' refers to both its pronunciation and spelling. 'Meaning' is what the form stands for. For example, the linguistic form cat /kaet/ is used to denote 'a small four-legged animal with soft fur and sharp claws'. It can be said that 'a small four-legged animal with soft fur and sharp claws' is the meaning of the word cat. But the term is not as simple as it seems to be. There are some related concepts which need further clarification.

1. Reference

Words are but symbols, many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference. Reference is the relationship between language and the world. 'By means of reference, a

speaker indicates which things in the world (including persons) are being talked about.' (Hurford and Heasley 1983:25) In other words, only when a connection has been established between the linguistic sign and a referent, i. e. , an object, a phenomenon, a person, etc. does the sign become meaningful. The form cat is meaningful because the language user employs it conventionally to refer to the 'animal' concerned. So part of the word meaning is the reference under discussion.

The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary(任意的) and conventional （约定俗成的）(See Chapter 1). This connection is the result of generalization(概括) and abstraction(抽象). The word cat refers to a whole set of animals of the same species without the distinction of size, color, region, owner and other factors. It is the extension of all cats in the universe.

Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something definite(确定的). Cat without context denotes a set of cats; but it refers to a particular cat in 'Jean forgot to feed her cat yesterday evening'. Therefore, meaning can be pinned down(确定；使明确说明) by the user, time, place, etc. . The same thing can have different referring expressions without causing any confusion. The cat can be

referred to as, say, the animal, my dear, Jassy, this , she and so on.

2. Concept

In many cases meaning is used in the sense of concept. Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical(完全相同的). They are both related directly to referents(所指) and are notions of the words but belong to different categories(范畴). Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认知), reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on whereas meaning belongs to language, so is restricted to language use. Therefore, a concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world. Even in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words. For example, much and many both have the same concept, but collocate with different words, much time, much money, much water, but many people, many books, many buildings, not vice versa. Synonymous(同义的)pairs such as die—pass away, maiden—-woman, quarrel—argue are all good examples. Each pair has the same concept but different socio-cultural and stylistic values(文体色彩).

3. Sense

Generally speaking, the meaning of 'meaning' is perhaps what is termed sense. Unlike reference, sense denotes(指称) the relationships inside the language. ' The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language'. (ibid) Since the sense of an expression is not a thing, it is often difficult to say what sort of identity it is. It is also an abstraction that can be entertained(心存，持有（信心、意见）；容纳，接受；（准备）考虑) in the mind of a language user. Every word that has meaning has sense but not every word has reference. For example, probable, nearly, and, if, but, yes, none of which refer to anything in the world, all have some sense. Just as one can talk of the same concept in different languages, so one can talk of expressions in different dialects of one language as laving the same sense: pavement in British English and sidewalk in American English have the same sense, so do pal(<口>伙伴，好友)and chum(<口>好友，同房间的人).

5.2 Motivation

Motivation(理据)refers to the connection between the

linguistic symbol and its meaning. As we know, the relationship between the word-form and meaning is conventional and arbitrary, most words can be said to be non-motivated(没有理据的). That is, the connection of the sign and meaning does not account for the meaning. Nevertheless, English does have words the meanings of which are transparent(透明的，清楚的；意义与形式有联系的) and reasonably explicable(可解释的).

1. Onomatopoeic Motivation（拟声理据）

In modern English one may find some words whose phonetic forms suggest their meanings as the words were created by imitating(模拟) the natural sounds or noises. For example, bow-wow, bang, ping-pong, miaow, cuckoo, tick-tuck, ha ha and the like are onomatopoetically motivated words. Knowing the sounds which they represent means understanding the meaning. All the words based on the sounds made by birds, animals, insects and so on belong to this category: crow by cocks, quack by ducks, trumpet by elephants, buzz by bees or flies, croak by frogs, squeak by mice, neigh by horses, bleat by goats, hiss by snakes, roar by lions, etc. . But such echoic(拟声的；回声的) words are conventional to quite a large extent, for the sounds we say in English may not be the same in other languages; splash

and whisper do not mean 'splash' and 'whisper' for example in German or French (Quirk 1978).

2. Morphological Motivation(形态理据)

Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic(多词素的) words and the meanings of many of them are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Often, when one knows the meanings of the morphemes or bases, one can deduce the meanings of the words. For instance, airmail means ' to mail by air' ; reading-lamp is ' the lamp for reading'; miniskirt is 'a small skirt'; and hopeful means 'full of hope'.

It should be pointed out that there are a lot of words whose structures are opaque(不透明的，不发亮的；难以理解), i.e. their meanings are not the combinations of the constituent parts. Black market, for example, is by no means the market black in color but expressing 'illegal selling and buying'. Likewise, egghead is not the head in the shape of an egg, but ' a learned person' in the derogatory(毁损的，贬低的) sense.

3. Semantic Motivation

Semantic motivation is the mental associations based on the conceptual meaning of a word. In other words, it is the

figurative(比喻性的) sense of the word. When we say the mouth of a river, we associate ' the opening part of the river' with ' the mouth of a human being or an animal'. When we use the foot of the mountain , we are comparing ' the lower part of the mountain' to ' the foot of a human being'. Bottle in ' He is fond of the bottle' reminds one of what is contained inside; and pen and sword in ' The pen is mightier(更强大的) than the sword' is suggestive(示意的；启发的；引起联想的) of 'writing' and 'war'.

4. Etymological Motivation

The origins of words more often than not throw light on(说明，揭示) their meanings. For example, now people use pen for any writing tool though it originally refers to 'a heavy quill(羽毛管；羽根) or feather', because before modern pens were created, feathers were trimmed(整理；修剪) to a split point（有分叉的尖端）, used as writing tools. Though people in modern times no longer use feathers in writing, for the sake of conventionality, the name is retained. All the words commonized from proper names can be explained in terms of their origins. One example will suffice(足够) for illustration. The word laconic meaning 'brief' or 'short' is derived From Lacons, a tribe of people who were known for their brevity(简洁；简练) of speech and for their habit

of never using more words than necessary. Hence a Laconic answer is 'a short answer' (See Commonization of Proper Names for details).

5.3 Types of Meaning

Word meaning per se(本身) is not monogeneous（单一的）but a composite(复合体)consisting of different components, which are known in familiar terms as different types of meaning. These meanings are not found in every word, and in fact some words possess some of them, devoid(没有的；缺乏的) of others. Some types of meanings may appear more prominent in certain words than in others. Some meanings are constant, and others may be transient(暂时的), existing only in actual contexts. All these form part of the study of semantics and prove of paramount(最高的，首要的)importance in the use of words. This section will discuss in brief each type of meaning.

1. Grammatical Meaning and Lexical Meaning

As mentioned earlier, grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs), singular and plural meaning of nouns,

tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional paradigm(范例，样式；【语】（名词、动词等的）词形变化)(forget, forgets , forgot, forgotten , forgetting). Grammatical meaning becomes transparent only when words are used in connected speech. For example, 'The dog is chasing a ball. ' The words dog and ball are nouns and both are singular used as subject and object in the sentence respectively; is chasing is the predicate verb(谓语动词), showing present continuous tense(现在进行时), and the and a are determiners(限定词，限定成分；决定因素), specifying definiteness and number. Unlike lexical meaning, different lexemes(词素)or lexical items(词项), which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning, e. g. tables, men, oxen, potatoes (having the same plural meaning) and taught, -worked, forgave (having the same tense meaning). On the other hand, one and the same lexeme may have different grammatical meaning as shown in forget, forgets, forgot, forgotten, forgetting. Functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning whereas content words have both meanings, and their lexical meanings are prominent.

Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning form the word meaning. As stated already, grammatical meaning surfaces(显现)

only in use, but lexical meaning is constant in all the content words within or without context as it is related to the concept the word conveys. Therefore it remains the focus of semantic studies and naturally is our chief concern. Lexical meaning itself embraces(包括)two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.

2. Conceptual Meaning and Associative Meaning

Conceptual meaning ( also known as cognitive（认知的）, denotative（外延的）, or designative（指称的）meaning) is meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word generally has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers in the same speech community. Take 'The sun rises in the east'. The symbol sun here means 'a heavenly body which gives off light, heat, and energy', a concept which is unmistakable to anyone who speaks English.

Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented(补充) to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture,

experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc.. Nida in his Language, Culture, and Translating (1993) lists six sources of associative meanings, namely,

(1)the persons who use such lexemes;

(2) the settings in which such lexemes are generally employed;

(3) the occurrence of such lexemes in prior texts (intertextuality(互文性));

(4) contamination(（词语的）感染错合；（文章的）混杂) from linguistic collocations;

(5) contamination from homophones(同音词);

(6) cultural values associated with the referents of the lexemes.

These could be fused into four categories: connotative(内涵的), stylistic, affective(情感的), and collocative(搭配的) (Leech 1981).

1) Connotative Meaning

Opposite to the denotative meaning(外延意义), connotative meaning(内涵意义) refers to the overtones(附带意义)or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations. It is not an essential part of

the word meaning, but social and cultural values that might occur in the mind of particular users of the language. For example, mother, denoting a 'female parent', is often associated with 'love', 'care', 'tenderness', 'forgiving', etc. . These connotations are not given in the dictionary, but associated with the word n actual context to particular readers or speakers. Another example is home, whose conceptual meaning is 'a dwelling place'. When readers come across the term in actual reading, they may make out more than that. It may remind them of their 'family, friends, warmth, safety, love, convenience', etc. . These connotations are implied in he well-known sayings ' East or west, home is best' and ' There is no place like home'.

Connotative meaning is peripheral(边缘的；不重要的) compared with conceptual meaning and annotations are relatively unstable, varying considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual. Suppose a child is prejudiced against, often jeered(嘲笑)at, beaten or scolded at home, then home to him is nothing but a hell, naturally he unfavorable connotations, 'indifference', 'hatred', 'disgust' and so on. Even a phrase like son of a bitch which normally has an associative meaning of crude vulgarity(粗俗；粗野) may convey the connotation of 'friendly conviviality'(欢

宴；宴饮交际) used between two close friends when they meet after some prolonged period of time as in 'And how are you doing, you old son of a bitch ?'. (Nida 1993:41)

2) Stylistic Meaning

Apart from their conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different styles. These distinctive features form the stylistic meaning of words. In some dictionaries, these stylistic features are clearly marked as formal', 'informal', 'literary', 'archaic' (古体的，不通用的；过时的), 'slang' and so on. For instance, pregnant, expecting, knocking up, in the club, greggers, up the stick, up the spout(被典当掉；被毁灭；丧失掉；怀孕), glowing, etc. , all can have the same reference, but differ in their contextual appropriateness. Words such as facticity(确凿性), neoclassicism(新古典主义), plausibility(似真性),

legitimacy(合法性)carry meanings of pedantry(卖弄学问；迂腐) and are appropriate for technical writing.

The stylistic differentiation(差异) is especially true of synonyms. It is observed that there are few words which have both the same conceptual meaning and the stylistic meaning. Martin Joos (1962) in his The Five Clocks suggests five degrees

of formality: 'frozen'(冷冻体), 'formal'(正式体), 'consultative

'(商洽体), 'casual'(随意体) and 'intimate '(亲密体). Accordingly, the synonyms charger(战马), steed(骏马), horse, nag(老马), plug(老而无用的马)can be labeled as 'frozen', 'formal', consultative', 'casual' and 'intimate' respectively. People generally do not go into such elaboration(详述). The normal terms used to classify styles are 'formal', 'neutral' or

informal'. In such terms charger and steed can be marked 'formal', nag and plug 'informal' and horse ' general' or ' neutral'. Compare the following two groups of synonyms:

domicile (very formal, official)(住宅；【律】原籍)

residence (formal)

abode (poetic)(住所)

home (general)

diminutive (very formal) (小的，小型的)

tiny (colloquial)

w ee (colloquial, dialectal)(极小的；（苏格兰）一点点)

(Leech 1981: 14-15)

Leech also illustrates the stylistic distinction in the following two sentences (ibid):

(1) They chucked(扔)a stone at the cops(条子), and then did a bunk with(窜)the loot(战利品).

(2) After casting a stone at the police, they absconded() with the money.

Apart from the structural difference, the stylistic features of words are quite conspicuous(). Sentence (1) could be said by two criminals, talking casually about the crime afterwards, so all the words used in italics are slang, whereas sentence (2) might be said by the chief inspector in making his official report, thus the words used are literary (cast, abscond) or neutral (police, money).

3) Affective Meaning

Affective meaning expresses the speaker's attitude towards the person or thing in question. This meaning can be overtly and explicitly conveyed simply by the choice of the right words as many have emotive content in themselves, e. g. vicious(恶毒的), villainous(罪恶的), tyrant(暴君), love, hate, anger, grief(悲痛), pleasure. Interjections(感叹词)are generally expressions of emotions such as oh , dear me, alas, hurrah.

Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative(褒义的)or pejorative. Words of

positive overtones are used to show appreciation or the attitude of approval such as famous, determined, slim /slender, black; those of negative connotations imply disapproval, contempt(鄙视)or criticism, e.g. notorious(臭名昭著的), pigheaded(倔强的), skinny(皮包骨的), nigger.(黑鬼)

Just like connotative meaning, affective meaning varies from individual to individual, from culture to culture, from generation to generation, from society to society. Words like revolution, freedom, democracy, imperialism may have quite different interpretations in different societies and sometimes these' emotive' overtones are more important in the words' use than the denotations (概念意义) (Jackson 1988). Another example is the word dog which may have quite different affective meanings in different societies. In most Western countries, dog is associated with 'loyalty', 'faithfulness', a close companion' and all positive qualities; whereas to Chinese, dog at its best is a useful animal. As a matter of fact, it generally takes on negative associations. If a person is compared to a dog, the speaker's attitude towards the person is no more than contemptuous'(鄙视的). In many cases, the appreciative or pejorative meaning of the words are brought out only by the speakers in context:

(1) He is bright and ambitious.(有抱负的)

(2) Knowledge of inequality has stimulated envy, ambition and greed.(野心)

(3) The reactionary's chief ambition is to become the emperor.(野心)

(4) One who is filled with ambition usually works hard.(抱负)

In sentences (1) and (4), the italicized words are obviously used in good sense showing approval on the part of the speaker. In sentences (2) and (3), however, ambition undoubtedly conveys a pejorative overtone. Therefore, to a large extent the affective meaning of the word depends on the circumstances under which it is used.

4) Collocative Meaning

As Leech defines, 'collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment. ' In other words, it is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words with which it co-occurs. He illustrates the point by the synonyms of pretty and handsome. These two words share the conceptual meaning of 'good-looking ' , but are distinguished by the range

of nouns they collocate with:

girl boy

boy man

woman car

flower woman

pretty garden

overcoat

handsome

color airline

village typewrite

r

etc. etc.

It may be noted that there is some overlap between the collocations of the two words, e. g. pretty woman and handsome woman. Though both are perfectly correct, yet they suggest a different kind of attractiveness. A pretty woman stresses the attractiveness of facial features while a handsome woman may not be facially beautiful yet is attractive in other respects: a slender figure, graceful posture and behaviour, etc. . The same is true of tremble and quiver, both meaning 'shake involuntarily', but people tremble with fear and quiver with

excitement, showing different implications.

It is again noticeable that collocative meaning overlaps with connotative and affective meaning because in a sense both connotative and affective meanings are revealed by virtue of collocations or contextuality(互文性). As Nida notes, one can often tell what work a person has been doing by the kinds of stains on clothing, so a word in particular contexts is likely to acquire associative meanings reflecting such usage. Green is a kind color but its meaning is obviously affected when it occurs in such phrases as green on he job, green fruit, green with envy, green-eyed monster.

5.4 Componential Analysis

Componential analysis, according to Leech, is the process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components. Every content word, even some of the simplest, harbours(包含；怀有) an amazingly explicit(明确) set of wayward(难以捉摸的，无法预言的；不规则的) traits(特征，特性) . Digging them out, classifying them, and showing their relationships is termed componential analysis(成分分析) ( Bolinger and Sears 1981:114). As an example, let us examine a group of semantically related words man , woman , boy, girl.

A B

1 m

a

n wo ma n

2 b

o

y

girl

This diagram represents three-dimensions of meaning of these words. Vertically, Column A and Column B show the dimension of sex 'male' and 'female'; horizontally, Line 1 and Line 2 reveal the dimension of age 'adult' and 'young'. Considered as a whole, these four words form the semantic field(语义场) 'human race', the third dimension. These traits of words are abstracted from the words and are called by semantic analysts semantic features(语义特征) , which are the components of the sense of words. Conventionally, these minimal components can "be symbolized in terms of binarity(两极性) : + ADULT (adult) , —ADULT (young), + MALE (male), —MALE (female), + HUMAN (human), -HUMAN (non-human). Therefore, the meanings of the individual items can be expressed by combinations of these features:

man ( + HUMAN + ADULT + MALE)

2012(2)语言学课程教学大纲

1.课程教学大纲 课程名称：语言学导论 英文名称：English Linguistics 学分：2学分 总学时：36学时 适用专业：英语09级 先修课程：词汇学、语音 一、课程性质、教学任务 课程类别：专业通用课 课程性质：通用选修课 本课程是英语专业本科学生高年级阶段的专业必修课。本课程旨在使学生了解语言学的基本理论、流派，掌握语言学的基本术语、概念，进而指导其英语学习。使学生掌握基本的语言学知识、概念，语言研究方法和原则，对语言学习有一个理论上的系统认识。 二、课程教学目的 本课程为英语专业本科的专业必修课。通过本课程的学习，使得学生基本了解语言学基本概念，包括英语语音学、语义学、语用学、语言的发展变化及研究方法，掌握Tem-8考试中的相关知识点，并为报考英语专业硕士研究生做好准备。学生能了解语言学发展现状，熟悉语言学的新成果，提高语言交际能力和综合研究能力。 三、课程教学内容与要求 第一章：语言学概况 学习目的和要求：通过学习，使得学生理解语言学的基本概念，了解语言学的基本范畴；了解现代语言学与索绪尔的关系；熟练掌握语言的显著特点；大致了解共时语言学与同时语言学等对比概念的划分基准。

第二章：英语语音 学习目的和要求：通过学习，使得学生掌握英语音声学、音素、音节、音调等语音基本概念，了解语音的发音部位；准确区分元音、辅音、半元音；基本能辨别有声音与无声音。了解元音与辅音的分类。 第三章：英语词汇学 学习目的和要求：通过学习，使得学生了解英语词汇学的概念、类型及分类方法，了解词汇学中单纯词、合成词、派生词、复合词等的基本概念；并了解英语词汇学研究的划分流派。基本掌握从意义方面划分词汇的基本方法。 第四章：英语句法学 学习目的和要求：通过学习，使得学生主要掌握英语中句法规则及句子成分的划分，了解句子的类型划分。了解英语语法的特殊性、转换生成语法，熟练掌握直接成分分析法、X-标阶理论。 第五章：英语语义学 学习目的和要求：通过学习，使得学生了解当前英语语义学的研究的范畴及研究方法；意义的种类、词汇意义关系以及句子意义关系。 第六章：英语语用学 学习目的和要求：语用学的定义及研究范畴、语用学的发展历史；会话含义以及会话准则；言语行为理论；能理解合作原则和关联理论 第八章：社会语言学 学习目的和要求：社会语言学的定义以及研究范围；语言与社会、语言与年龄、性别的关系；语言的文化传递性 第九章：心理语言学 学习目的和要求：相关学科的定义及其研究对象；语言习得，形成及理解；语言与思维的关系；沃尔夫-萨皮尔假说。 第十章：认知语言学 学习目的和要求：相关学科的定义及其研究对象；范畴化和类别化；隐喻和转喻；相似性 第十一章：语言习得

大学英语专业学习课程信息明细

目录 高级英语I (1) 高级英语II (1) 高级英语写作I (1) 高级英语写作II (2) 翻译理论与实践I (2) 翻译理论与实践II (2) 英语散文选读 (3) 英语测试 (3) 英国文学史及选读I (3) 英国文学史及选读II (4) 美国文学史及选读 (4) 英语词汇学 (5) 语言学导论 (5) 英美报刊选读 (5) 英语教育学 (6) 跨文化交流 (6) 英美文学导论 (6) 高级英语 (7) 高级英语写作 (7) 翻译理论与实践 (8) 语言学导论 (8) 英美文化导论 (8) 高级英语I-III (9) 英汉互译I (9) 英汉互译II (9) 英语文体学 (10) 英语语义学 (10) 综合英语I (11) 综合英语II (11) 综合英语III (11) 综合英语IV (12) 英语语音 (12) 英语听力I (13) 英语听力II (13) 英语听力III (13) 英语听力IV (14) 英语口语I (14) 英语口语II (14) 英语口语III (15)

英语口语IV (15) 英语阅读I (15) 英语阅读II (16) 英语阅读III (16) 英语阅读IV (16) 英语写作 (17) 英语语法概论 (17) 英语教育学 (18) 英语视听 (18) 英语国家概况 (18) 心理学（英语） (18) 国际市场营销 (19) 国际贸易实务 (19) 国际商务函电 (20) 人力资源管理（英语） (20) 国际贸易实务Ⅰ (20) 国际贸易实务Ⅱ (21) 商务文秘 (21) 商务英语视听 (22) 商务英语 (22) 商务英语 (22) 日语（二外） (23) 俄语（二外） (23) 大学英语I～V (23)

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词汇学第五章

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大学英语教材答案大全

大学英语教材答案大全第一章：听力答案 1. A 2. B 3. C 4. A 5. B 第二章：阅读理解答案 1. D 2. C 3. A 4. B 5. D 第三章：语法练习答案 1. was sleeping 2. haven't been 3. will call 4. had arrived

5. were playing 第四章：词汇练习答案 1. marvelous 2. ambitious 3. enthusiastic 4. efficient 5. crucial 第五章：写作练习答案 请参考以下范文： In recent years, the rapid development of technology has greatly influenced our lives in various ways. One significant change is the way we communicate. Firstly, with the invention of smartphones and social media platforms, communication has become more convenient and accessible. People can now connect with each other instantly, regardless of geographical distance. This has not only brought people closer together, but also facilitated the exchange of ideas and cultures. Secondly, technology has revolutionized the way we share information. With just a few clicks, we can access a vast amount of knowledge and stay updated with the latest news. This has greatly enhanced our learning abilities and expanded our horizons.