电力系统中英文翻译

LINE PROTECTION WITH DISTANCE RELAYS

Distance relaying should be considered when overcurrent relaying is too slow or is not selective. Distance relays are generally used for phase-fault primary and back-up protection on subtransmission lines, and on transmission lines where high-speed automatic reclosing is not necessary to maintain stability and where the short time delay for end-zone faults can be tolerated. Overcurrent relays have been used generally for ground-fault primary and back-up protection, but there is a growing trend toward distance relays for ground faults also.

Single-step distance relays are used for phase-fault back-up protection at the terminals of generators. Also, single-step distance relays might be used with advantage for back-up protection at power-transformer tanks, but at the present such protection is generally provided by inverse-time overcurrent relays.

Distance relays are preferred to overcurrent relays because they are not nearly so much affected by changes in short-circuit-current magnitude as overcurrent relays are, and , hence , are much less affected by changes in generating capacity and in system configuration. This is because, distance relays achieve selectivity on the basis of impedance rather than current.

THE CHOICE BETWEEN IMPEDANCE, REACTANCE, OR MHO

Because ground resistance can be so variable, a ground distance relay must be practically unaffected by large variations in fault resistance. Consequently, reactance relays are generally preferred for ground relaying.

For phase-fault relaying, each type has certain advantages and disadvantages. For very short line sections, the reactance type is preferred for the reason that more of the

line can be protected at high speed. This is because the reactance relay is practically unaffected by arc resistance which may be large compared with the line impedance, as described elsewhere in this chapter. On the other hand, reactance-type distance relays at certain locations in a system are the most likely to operate undesirably on severe synchronizing-power surges unless additional relay equipment is provided to prevent such operation.

The mho type is best suited for phase-fault relaying for longer lines, and particularly where severe synchronizing-power surges may occur. It is the least likely to require additional equipment to prevent tripping on synchronizing-power surges. When mho relaying is adjusted to protect any given line section, its operating characteristic encloses the least space on the R-X diagram, which means that it will be least affected by abnormal system conditions other than line faults; in other words, it is the most selective of all distance relays. Because the mho relay is affected by arc resistance more than any other type, it is applied to longer lines. The fact that it combines both the directional and the distance-measuring functions in one unit with one contact makes it very reliable.

The impedance relay is better suited for phase-fault relaying for lines of moderate length than for either very short or very long lines. Arcs affect an impedance relay more than a reactance relay but less than a mho relay. Synchronizing-power surges affect an impedance relay less than a reactance relay but more than a mho relay. If an impedance-relay characteristic is offset, so as to make it a modified? relay, it can be made to resemble either a reactance relay or a mho relay but it will always require a separate directional unit.

There is no sharp dividing line between areas of application where one or another type of distance relay is best suited. Actually, there is much overlapping of these areas. Also, changes that are made in systems, such as the addition of terminals to a line, can change the type of relay best suited to a particular location. Consequently, to realize

the fullest capabilities of distance relaying, one should use the type best suited for each application. In some cases much better selectivity can be obtained between relays of the same type, but, if relays are used that are best suited to each line, different types on adjacent lines have no appreciable adverse effect on selectivity. THE ADJUSTMENT OF DISTANCE RELAYS

Phase distance relays are adjusted on the basis of the positive-phase-sequence impedance between the relay location and the fault location beyond which operation of a given relay unit should stop. Ground distance relays are adjusted in the same way, although some types may respond to the zero-phase-sequence impedance. This impedance, or the corresponding distance, is called the "reach" of the relay or unit. For purposes of rough approximation, it is customary to assume an average positive-phase-sequence-reactance value of about 0.8 ohm per mile for open transmission-line construction, and to neglect resistance. Accurate data are available in textbooks devoted to power-system analysis.

To convert primary impedance to a secondary value for use in adjusting a phase or ground distance relay, the following formula is used:

where the CT ratio is the ratio of the high-voltage phase current to the relay phase current, and the VT ratio is the ratio of the high-voltage phase-to-phase voltage to the relay phase-to-phase voltage–all under balanced three-phase conditions. Thus, for a 50-mile, 138-kv line with 600/5 wye-connected CT’s, the secondary positive-phase-sequence reactance is about

It is the practice to adjust the first, or high-speed, zone of distance relays to reach to

80% to 90% of the length of a two-ended line or to 80% to 90% of the distance to the nearest terminal of a multiterminal line. There is no time-delay adjustment for this unit.

The principal purpose of the second-zone unit of a distance relay is to provide protection for the rest of the line beyond the reach of the first-zone unit. It should be adjusted so that it will be able to operate even for arcing faults at the end of the line. To do this, the unit must reach beyond the end of the line. Even if arcing faults did not have to be considered, one would have to take into account an underreaching tendency because of the effect of intermediate current sources, and of errors in: (1) the data on which adjustments are based, (2) the current and voltage transformers, and (3) the relays. It is customary to try to have the second-zone unit reach to at least 20% of an adjoining line section; the farther this can be extended into the adjoining line section, the more leeway is allowed in the reach of the third-zone unit of the next line-section back that must be selective with this second-zone unit.

The maximum value of the second-zone reach also has a limit. Under conditions of maximum overreach, the second-zone reach should be short enough to be selective with the second-zone units of distance relays on the shortest adjoining line sections, as illustrated in Fig. 1. Transient overreach need not be considered with relays having a high ratio of reset to pickup because the transient that causes overreach will have expired before the second-zone tripping time. However, if the ratio of reset to pickup is low, the second-zone unit must be set either (1) with a reach short enough so that its overreach will not extend beyond the reach of the first-zone unit of the adjoining line

section under the same conditions, or (2) with a time delay long enough to be selective with the second-zone time of the adjoining section, as shown in Fig. 2. In this connection, any underreaching tendencies of the relays on the adjoining line sections must be taken into account. When an adjoining line is so short that it is impossible to get the required selectivity on the basis of react, it becomes necessary to increase the time delay, as illustrated in Fig. 2. Otherwise, the time delay of the second-zone unit should be long enough to provide selectivity with the slowest of (1) bus-differential relays of the bus at the other end of the line(2)transformer-differential relays of transformers on the bus at the other end of the line,

or (3) line relays of adjoining line sections. The interrupting time of the circuit breakers of these various elements will also affect the second-zone time. This second-zone time is normally about 0.2 second to 0.5 second.

The third-zone unit provides back-up protection for faults in adjoining line sections.

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外文翻译--农村金融主流的非正规金融机构

附录1 RURAL FINANCE: MAINSTREAMING INFORMAL FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS By Hans Dieter Seibel Abstract Informal financial institutions (IFIs), among them the ubiquitous rotating savings and credit associations, are of ancient origin. Owned and self-managed by local people, poor and non-poor, they are self-help organizations which mobilize their own resources, cover their costs and finance their growth from their profits. With the expansion of the money economy, they have spread into new areas and grown in numbers, size and diversity; but ultimately, most have remained restricted in size, outreach and duration. Are they best left alone, or should they be helped to upgrade their operations and be integrated into the wider financial market? Under conducive policy conditions, some have spontaneously taken the opportunity of evolving into semiformal or formal microfinance institutions (MFIs). This has usually yielded great benefits in terms of financial deepening, sustainability and outreach. Donors may build on these indigenous foundations and provide support for various options of institutional development, among them: incentives-driven mainstreaming through networking; encouraging the establishment of new IFIs in areas devoid of financial services; linking IFIs/MFIs to banks; strengthening Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) as promoters of good practices; and, in a nonrepressive policy environment, promoting appropriate legal forms, prudential regulation and delegated supervision. Key words: Microfinance, microcredit, microsavings。 1. informal finance, self-help groups In March 1967, on one of my first field trips in Liberia, I had the opportunity to observe a group of a dozen Mano peasants cutting trees in a field belonging to one of them. Before they started their work, they placed hoe-shaped masks in a small circle, chanted words and turned into animals. One turned into a lion, another one into a bush hog, and so on, and they continued to imitate those animals throughout the whole day, as they worked hard on their land. I realized I was onto something serious, and at the end of the day, when they had put the masks into a bag and changed back into humans,

资料：《安全工程专业英语(部分翻译)》

Unit 1 safety management system Accident causation models 事故致因理论 Safety management 安全管理Physical conditions 物质条件Machine guarding 机械保护装置House-keeping 工作场所管理 Top management 高层管理人员Human errors 人因失误 Accident-proneness models 事故倾向模型Munitions factory 军工厂 Causal factors 起因 Risking taking 冒险行为 Corporate culture 企业文化 Loss prevention 损失预防 Process industry 制造工业 Hazard control 危险控制 Intensive study 广泛研究Organizational performance 企业绩效Mutual trust 相互信任Safety officer 安全官员Safety committee 安全委员会Shop-floor 生产区Unionized company 集团公司Seniority 资历、工龄Local culture 当地文化Absenteeism rate 缺勤率Power relations 权力关系 Status review 状态审查 Lower-level management 低层管理者Business performance 组织绩效Most senior executive 高级主管Supervisory level 监督层Safety principle 安全规则 Wall-board 公告栏Implement plan 执行计划 Hazard identification 危险辨识Safety performance 安全性能 One comprehensive definition for an organizational culture has been presented by Schein who has said the organizational culture is “a pattern of basic assumptions –invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration –that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems” 译文：Schein给出了组织文化的广泛定义，他认为组织文化是由若干基本假设组成的一种模式，这些假设是由某个特定团体在处理外部适应问题与内部整合问题的过程中发明、发现或完善的。由于以这种模式工作的有效性得到了认可，因此将它作为一种正确的方法传授给新成员，让他们以此来认识、思考和解决问题[指适应外部与整合内部的过程中的问题]。 The safety culture of an organization is the product of individual and group values, attitudes, perceptions, competencies, and patterns of behavior that determine the commitment t o, and the style and proficiency of , an organization’s health and safety management. 译文：组织的安全文化由以下几项内容组成：个人和群体的价值观、态度、观念、能力和行为方式。这种行为方式决定了个人或团体对组织健康安全管理的责任，以及组织健康安全管理的形式和熟练程度。

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吉林化工学院理学院 毕业论文外文翻译English Title（Times New Roman ，三号） 学生学号：08810219 学生姓名：袁庚文 专业班级：信息与计算科学0802 指导教师：赵瑛 职称副教授 起止日期：2012.2.27～2012.3.14 吉林化工学院 Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology

1 外文翻译的基本内容 应选择与本课题密切相关的外文文献（学术期刊网上的），译成中文，与原文装订在一起并独立成册。在毕业答辩前，同论文一起上交。译文字数不应少于3000个汉字。 2 书写规范 2.1 外文翻译的正文格式 正文版心设置为：上边距：3.5厘米，下边距：2.5厘米，左边距：3.5厘米，右边距：2厘米，页眉：2.5厘米，页脚：2厘米。 中文部分正文选用模板中的样式所定义的“正文”，每段落首行缩进2字；或者手动设置成每段落首行缩进2字，字体：宋体，字号：小四，行距：多倍行距1.3，间距：前段、后段均为0行。 这部分工作模板中已经自动设置为缺省值。 2.2标题格式 特别注意：各级标题的具体形式可参照外文原文确定。 1．第一级标题（如：第1章绪论）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题1”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：三号，1.5倍行距，段后11磅，段前为11磅。 2．第二级标题（如：1.2 摘要与关键词）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题2”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：四号，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 3．第三级标题（如：1.2.1 摘要）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题3”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：小四，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 标题和后面文字之间空一格（半角）。 3 图表及公式等的格式说明 图表、公式、参考文献等的格式详见《吉林化工学院本科学生毕业设计说明书（论文）撰写规范及标准模版》中相关的说明。

常见职务职位英文翻译

常见职务职位英文翻译 希望对你有帮助哦!总公司Head Office分公司Branch Office营业部Business Office人事部Personnel Department(人力资源部)Human Resources Department总务部General Affairs Department财务部General Accounting Department销售部Sales Department促销部Sales Promotion Department国际部International Department出口部Export Department进口部Import Department公共关系Public Relations Department广告部Advertising Department企划部Planning Department产品开发部Product Development Department研发部Research and Development Department(R&D)秘书室Secretarial PoolAccounting Assistant 会计助理Accounting Clerk 记帐员Accounting Manager 会计部经理Accounting Stall 会计部职员Accounting Supervisor 会计主管Administration Manager 行政经理Administration Staff 行政人员Administrative Assistant 行政助理Administrative Clerk 行政办事员Advertising Staff 广告工作人员Airlines Sales Representative 航空公司定座员Airlines Staff 航空公司职员Application Engineer 应用工程师Assistant Manager 副经理Bond Analyst 证券分析员Bond Trader 证券交易员Business Controller 业务主任Business Manager 业务经理Buyer 采购员Cashier 出纳员Chemical Engineer 化学工程师

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