心理学专业外语翻译第14页

Ideographic vs. Nomothetic Approaches to Psychology NOMOTHETIC APPROACH DEFINITIONS

The approach of investigating large groups of people to try to find general laws of behaviour that apply to everyone.

ASSUMPTIONS & METHODS

The nomothetic approach (from the Greek word ‘nomos’meaning ‘law’) assumes that since individuals are merely complex combinations of many universal laws,people are best studied by large scale, preferably experimental, methods to identify those laws. The individual will be classified with others ,measured as a score upon a dimension , or be a statistic supporting a general principle.

EXAMPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY

Nomothetic research is the main approach taken in scientifically oriented psychology:

The behaviourists’experiments on the principles of learning were conducted on many subjects , and replicated until the general principles of learning were well established .Most of the experiments were conducted on rats and pigeons , but the behaviourists’belief in the universal nature of the laws they discovered allowed them to generalise their findings to humans.

The social psychology experiments of Asch and Milgram also used the 心理学之特殊规律与一般规律研究法

一般规律研究法

定义

通过调查大群体的人，试图找到适用于每个人的普遍行为规律的研究方法。

研究假设和方法

一般规律研究法（源自希腊词汇‘nomos’,意思是‘规律’）假设，既然个体只是许多普遍规律的复杂结合体，那么在对人们进行研究时最好通过大规模的、较适合的实验方法来证实这些规律。这些个体将会与其他人进行分类，在一个维度上测得一个分数或一个典型统计量来支持一个一般原则。

心理学中的例子

一般规律研究法是科学心理学中主要使用的方法：

行为主义学家关于学习规律的实验在许多被试身上实施，这些实验被一再地重复，直到形成了完善的关于学习的一般规律。虽然绝大多数实验是用老鼠和鸽子进行的，但是基于他们的研究,行为主义学家在普遍的自然规律方面的信念使得他们把这些发现普及到人的身上。

阿施和米尔格兰姆的社会心理学实验也使用了一般规律研究法，目的是得

nomothetic approach, aiming to reach general conclusions.

All psychological theories that propose generalised principles of behaviour have nomothetic assumptions –Eysenck’s personality theory places individuals along a universal dimension of extroversion, intelligence tests measure people along the scale of IQ scores, the medical model classification manuals ,e.g.the DSMIV, classify people as suffering from particular types of disorder.

ADV ANTAGES

The nomothetic approach is in tune with the deterministic ,law-abiding nature of science, and has been applied very successfully in other sciences as well as psychology .The ability to generalise laws from limited instances is very useful in predicting & controlling behaviour.Personality questionnaires and mental disorer classification manuals have proven useful in the selection of personnel and the diagnosis and treatment of disorders .Nomothetic finding from psychological studies may prove useful in reducing global problems such as prejudice and aggression.

DISADV ANTAGES

The drawback,however,is that this approach leaves us with a more superficial understanding of any one person-you and I may have answered different questions from you.

Also a piece of nomothetic research may tell me I have a 1% chance of becoming schizophrenic,but it will not tell me if am in that 1%.

Nomothetic generalisations may be too inaccurate for the individual.This is a 出具有普遍性的结论。

所有揭示行为普遍规律的心理学理论有一般性的假设–艾克森的人格理论将个体按照外倾维度进行划分，智力测验则按照IQ得分对人们进行测量，医学模型分类手册，比如：《诊断与统计手册》第四版，按照人们所具有的特定的障碍类型进行分类。

优点

一般规律研究法与具有确定性的、遵循规律的自然科学一致，并且已经被成功地运用于其它的科学领域，包括心理学在内。从有限的例子中概括出一般规律的能力在预测和控制行为方面是非常有用的。人格问卷和精神障碍分类指南在员工的选择和精神障碍患者的诊断和治疗方面已被证实是有用的。来自心理学研究的一般发现或许会在减少全球性问题（如歧视和攻击）上起到一定的作用。

不足

然而，这种研究方法的缺点是它使我们对于任何人都留下一个非常表浅的理解--

而且，一项一般性的调查研究可能会告诉我有1%的可能患分裂情感性精神病，但是它不能告诉我是否我在那1%内。

一般性的概括对于个体来讲或许会太

criticism of the medical model classification systems whose diagnosis may not accurately describe or help the subject.

IDIOGRAPHIC APPROACH DEFINATIONS

The approach of investigating individuals in personal,in-depth,detail to achieve a unique understanding of them.

ASSUMPTIONS & METHODS

The idiographic approach(from the Greek ‘idios’meaning ‘private or personal’) assumes that since each human is unique,they are best investigated by the case study method to provide a more complete and global understanding or the individual.Individuals are studied using more flexible,long term and detailed procedures and may be put in a class of their own.

EXAMPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY

There are many examples of idiographic studies in psychology:

Freud(1909) used the clinical case study method,seeing patients frequently,over long periods of time,and keeping detailed notes of his interpretations.Freud’s techniques were deliberately unstructured(as in free association) and he wrote up his notes at the end of the day to allow a more free and natural expression of the patients thoughts.

Piaget(1953) carried out longitudinal studies of the cognitve development of 不精确。这是对于医学模型分类系统的批判，它的诊断可能对患者不能进行精确的描述或提供有效的帮助。

特殊规律研究法

定义

通过对个体进行单个的、深入的、详细的调查，以得出关于他们的独特的理解的研究方法。

研究假设和方法

特殊规律研究法（源自希腊词汇‘idios’，意思是‘私人的’或‘个体的’）假设：既然每个人都是与众不同的，因此最好采用个案研究法对他们进行调查，以提供对于个体的更全面、更完整的理解。采用更加灵活、长期的和详细的程序对个体进行研究并且这些个体可能被安置在适合自己的小团体内。

心理学中的例子

在心里学中有许多关于特殊规律研究的例子：

弗洛伊德（1909）使用临床个案研究法,在一段相当长的时期内，他会经常去看望他的病人，并详细地记下他们的谈话。弗洛伊德的治疗技术是非结构化的（就像在自由联想中那样），并且他会在一天结束的时候详细地做笔记，目的是使自己对病人的思想有一个更加自由和流畅的表述。

皮亚杰对自己的孩子实施了关于认知

his children,keeping frequent notes and using the flexible clinical interview method and informal experiments to gain detailed and ecologically valid understanding.

Gardner and Gardner(1969) spent long periods of time interacting with and observing the chimpanzee Washoe as they attempted to teach it sign language. Gregory and Wallace(1963) studied the perceptual progress of a man who recovered his sight after 50 years. ADV ANTAGES

The idiographic approach provides a more complete and global understanding of the individual.

This approach may be the most efficiet in the area concerned(as Freud and Piaget claimed ) or it may be the only viable one available(as in the case Washoe-long and detaield study was necessary to teach language and measure the progress).Idiographic studies are often financially necessary and may spark off interest and lead to experimental research in an area(eg piaget).

DISADV ANTAGES

However,the disdvantage of using this approach is that we cannot legitimately generalise(or apply) any findings carried out on just one person to other people. Freud and Piaget have been accused of creating global theories from limited and unrepresentative samples and methods. Idiographic techniques also tend to be more unreliable and unscientific due to their more subjective, long term, flexible and understanding nature. COMPROMISE

Clearly both approaches seem necessary 发展的纵向研究，他经常性地做笔记，并且使用灵活的临床访谈法和非正式实验来获得详细的和具有生态效度的理解。

加德纳夫妇（1969）花费了大量的时间与黑猩猩瓦苏进行交流并对其进观察，因为他们试图教给它符号语言。格雷戈里与华莱士（1963）研究了一个人的知觉过程，这个人在失明50年之后获得康复。

优点

特殊规律研究法提供了关于个体的更全面的、整体性的理解。

这种研究方法可能是相关领域内最有效的（就像弗洛伊德和皮亚杰所宣称的那样）或者是一个人能获得的唯一可行的方法（就像在瓦苏的个案中—为了教授语言并测量这个过程，长期的和详细的研究是必须的）。特殊规律的研究通常比较经济，而且可能会引发研究者对某个领域进行实验研究的兴趣（如皮亚杰）。

不足

然而，使用这种方法的缺点在于我们不能把在一个人身上实施得出的任何结论合理归纳（或应用）到其他人身上。弗洛伊德和皮亚杰因为通过有限的和不具代表性的样本和方法得出一般性结论而受到指责。由于特殊规律研究法所具有的主观性、长期性、灵活性和理解性。使得该方法表现出更加不可靠和不科学的倾向。

折中

显然，对于一个完整的心理学研究来

for a complete study of Psychology-if the aims of science are to describe, understand,predict and control,then idiographic methods may be more suitable for the first two aims and nomothetic methods for the latter two. As Kluckolm and Murray(1953) have pointed out,every person is in some respects 1 like no other person,2 like some other people,and 3 like all other peole.If there were no common points between individuals then nobody would be able to understand each other.In the case of abnormality,classification allows research to be carried out on groups of people suffering similar symptoms in the hope that a similar cause and cure can be identified.However,an idiographic approach may be useful to deal with the particular and perhaps unique set of problems encountered by each patient.

A healthy balance between nomothetic and idiographic approaches is needed if psychology is to succeed in all of its aims. 说，两种研究方法似乎都是必须的—假如科学的目标是描述、理解、预测和控制，那么特殊规律研究法更适合于前两个目标，而一般规律研究法则适合于后两个。

就像克拉克霍姆和默里（1953）所指出的那样，一个人有多个方面：1 与众不同的方面，2 与一些人相似的方面，3 与所有人相同的方面。假如个体之间没有共同点，那么人与人之间将不能够相互理解。在有关变态的案例中，对变态行为的分类使研究者可以在患有相同症状的人之间展开，并寄希望于找到相似的病因和治疗方法。而，特殊规律研究法在处理特殊的、或许是一个病人的独特的问题时被证明是有效的。

心理学要想在它的所有的目标上获得成功，在一般规律研究法与特殊规律研究法之间建立一种有效的平衡点是必要的

土木工程类专业英文文献及翻译

PA VEMENT PROBLEMS CAUSED BY COLLAPSIBLE SUBGRADES By Sandra L. Houston,1 Associate Member, ASCE (Reviewed by the Highway Division) ABSTRACT: Problem subgrade materials consisting of collapsible soils are com- mon in arid environments, which have climatic conditions and depositional and weathering processes favorable to their formation. Included herein is a discussion of predictive techniques that use commonly available laboratory equipment and testing methods for obtaining reliable estimates of the volume change for these problem soils. A method for predicting relevant stresses and corresponding collapse strains for typical pavement subgrades is presented. Relatively simple methods of evaluating potential volume change, based on results of familiar laboratory tests, are used. INTRODUCTION When a soil is given free access to water, it may decrease in volume, increase in volume, or do nothing. A soil that increases in volume is called a swelling or expansive soil, and a soil that decreases in volume is called a collapsible soil. The amount of volume change that occurs depends on the soil type and structure, the initial soil density, the imposed stress state, and the degree and extent of wetting. Subgrade materials comprised of soils that change volume upon wetting have caused distress to highways since the be- ginning of the professional practice and have cost many millions of dollars in roadway repairs. The prediction of the volume changes that may occur in the field is the first step in making an economic decision for dealing with these problem subgrade materials. Each project will have different design considerations, economic con- straints, and risk factors that will have to be taken into account. However, with a reliable method for making volume change predictions, the best design relative to the subgrade soils becomes a matter of economic comparison, and a much more rational design approach may be made. For example, typical techniques for dealing with expansive clays include: (1) In situ treatments with substances such as lime, cement, or fly-ash; (2) seepage barriers and/ or drainage systems; or (3) a computing of the serviceability loss and a mod- ification of the design to "accept" the anticipated expansion. In order to make the most economical decision, the amount of volume change (especially non- uniform volume change) must be accurately estimated, and the degree of road roughness evaluated from these data. Similarly, alternative design techniques are available for any roadway problem. The emphasis here will be placed on presenting economical and simple methods for: (1) Determining whether the subgrade materials are collapsible; and (2) estimating the amount of volume change that is likely to occur in the 'Asst. Prof., Ctr. for Advanced Res. in Transp., Arizona State Univ., Tempe, AZ 85287. Note. Discussion open until April 1, 1989. To extend the closing date one month,

计算机专业毕业设计说明书外文翻译(中英对照)

Talking about security loopholes Richard S. Kraus reference to the core network security business objective is to protect the sustainability of the system and data security, This two of the main threats come from the worm outbreaks, hacking attacks, denial of service attacks, Trojan horse. Worms, hacker attacks problems and loopholes closely linked to, if there is major security loopholes have emerged, the entire Internet will be faced with a major challenge. While traditional Trojan and little security loopholes, but recently many Trojan are clever use of the IE loophole let you browse the website at unknowingly were on the move. Security loopholes in the definition of a lot, I have here is a popular saying: can be used to stem the "thought" can not do, and are safety-related deficiencies. This shortcoming can be a matter of design, code realization of the problem. Different perspective of security loo phole s In the classification of a specific procedure is safe from the many loopholes in classification. 1. Classification from the user groups: ● Public loopholes in the software category. If the loopholes in Windows, IE loophole, and so on. ● specialized software loophole. If Oracle loopholes, Apach e,

计算机专业外文翻译--c 的起源一个小的历史

外文原文 The Origins of C++: A Little History Computer technology has evolved at an amazing rate over the past few decades. Today a notebook computer can compute faster and store more information than the mainframe computers of the 1960s. Computer languages have evolved, too. The changes may not be as dramatic, but they are important. Bigger, more powerful computers spawn bigger, more complex programs, which, in turn, raise new problems in program management and maintenance. In the 1970s, languages such as C and Pascal helped usher in an era of structured programming, a philosophy that brought some order and discipline to a field badly in need of these qualities. Besides providing the tools for structured programming, C also produced compact,fast-running programs, along with the ability to address hardware matters, such as managing communication ports and disk drives. These gifts helped make C the dominant programming language in the 1980s. Meanwhile, the 1980s witnessed the growth of a new programming paradigm: object-oriented programming, or OOP, as embodied in languages such as SmallTalk and C++. Let’s examine these C and OOP a bit more closely. The Mechanics of Creating a Program Suppose you’ve written a C++ program. How do you get it running? The exact steps depend on your computer environment and the particular C++ compiler you use, but they should resemble the following steps: 1. Use a text editor of some sort to write the program and save it in a file. This file constitutes the source code for your program. 2. Compile the source code. This means running a program that translates the source code to the internal language, called machine language, used by the host computer. The file containing the translated program is the object code for your program. 3. Link the object code with additional code. For example, C++ programs normally use libraries. A C++ library contains object code for a collection of computer routines, called functions, to perform tasks such as displaying information onscreen or calculating the square root of a number. Linking combines your object code with object code for the functions you use and with some standard startup code to produce a runtime version of your program. The file containing this final product is called the executable code. CAsyncSocket

毕业论文外文翻译模版

吉林化工学院理学院 毕业论文外文翻译English Title（Times New Roman ，三号） 学生学号：08810219 学生姓名：袁庚文 专业班级：信息与计算科学0802 指导教师：赵瑛 职称副教授 起止日期：2012.2.27～2012.3.14 吉林化工学院 Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology

1 外文翻译的基本内容 应选择与本课题密切相关的外文文献（学术期刊网上的），译成中文，与原文装订在一起并独立成册。在毕业答辩前，同论文一起上交。译文字数不应少于3000个汉字。 2 书写规范 2.1 外文翻译的正文格式 正文版心设置为：上边距：3.5厘米，下边距：2.5厘米，左边距：3.5厘米，右边距：2厘米，页眉：2.5厘米，页脚：2厘米。 中文部分正文选用模板中的样式所定义的“正文”，每段落首行缩进2字；或者手动设置成每段落首行缩进2字，字体：宋体，字号：小四，行距：多倍行距1.3，间距：前段、后段均为0行。 这部分工作模板中已经自动设置为缺省值。 2.2标题格式 特别注意：各级标题的具体形式可参照外文原文确定。 1．第一级标题（如：第1章绪论）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题1”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：三号，1.5倍行距，段后11磅，段前为11磅。 2．第二级标题（如：1.2 摘要与关键词）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题2”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：四号，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 3．第三级标题（如：1.2.1 摘要）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题3”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：小四，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 标题和后面文字之间空一格（半角）。 3 图表及公式等的格式说明 图表、公式、参考文献等的格式详见《吉林化工学院本科学生毕业设计说明书（论文）撰写规范及标准模版》中相关的说明。

Unit5A-工商管理英语-第二版-课文翻译参考-雷涯邻主编-高等教育出版社

市场营销：概论 在过去的一百多年中，市场营销作为一项商业职能，其职责和概念有了长足的发展。最初，市场营销活动仅仅关注如何完成商业交换，即让顾客去买东西。通常一些较大的商业力量经常自己完成销售活动。在美国，在这些商业力量的影响下，销售过程的发展可以分为几个时期。Perreault和McCarthy 总结为以下五个时期（1）简单贸易时期（2）产品时期（3）销售时期（4）市场营销部门时期（5）市场营销公司时期。为了了解现代市场营销在美国商业中如何发挥作用，回顾每个时期的销售行为是很有帮助的。在讨论其发展过程后，将可以依据它在美国商业行为中的运做而提出一个现代市场营销的定义。 在简单贸易时期，通常“制造商”是专门生产一种或几种产品的乡村家庭。这些产品通常是农作物或牲畜，但是他们可以是使用简单的手工工具来完成的技艺。剩余的产品就卖给或以实物交换给当地的中间商，这些中间商又寻找更远的顾客来出售他们收集来的产品。这个时期在西方社会持续了几百年。此外，这个时期的中间人的活动范围都比较大。举个例子，文艺复兴时期的意大利特别是威尼斯商人，从印度、中国和东南亚进口商品。这些商人是这个简单贸易时期运作最成功的商人。 当19世纪末，工业革命在欧洲兴起的时候，美国开始发展起来，这时产品时期也取代了简单的贸易时期。产品时期最明显的特征就是机器使用率的提高和新的组织技术的发展，这些大大促进了产品数量的增加。因此有很多商品都能以较低的价格提供给更多的顾客，从而也大大刺激了需求的增长。所以，很多公司把更多的精力放在提高生产技术上。生产效率很高的公司很少关注产品的销售，因为这个时期需求远远大于供给。如果公司生产一件产品，通常就有现成的买主在等待着。 到了19世纪30年代，很多生产商已经大大地提高了产量，使得西方国家很多行业的生产能力超过了潜在顾客的需求，这就导致了销售时代的来临。销售时代的特征是相信顾客不愿购买产品，部分原因是因为如此众多的公司为了获得客户的关注而展开竞争。在这个时代，大多数公司向销售人员传授成功的销售技巧，这些技巧可以征服潜在顾客心中的抵制情绪。因此，销售人员常常成为了说服艺术和人际交往的专家。在大多数极端的案例中，很多销售策略都是为了操纵消费者，而很少或根本不顾及顾客是否对产品有需求。 随着大多数行业的销售和大部分西方国家在第二次世界大战后得到发展，销售时代过渡到市场营销部门时代。市场营销部门时代认为销售是一个更全面的活动，而非个体销售代表征服客户的活动。销售活动已经扩大到更多非个人的交流形式，而且组织创立了市场营销部门来协调整个公司的销售活动。在市场营销部门时代，营销经理主要贯彻执行由公司经理制定的销售战略。例如，20世纪50~60年代通用汽车公司通过市场营销部门来协调销售取得了巨大的成功。通过整合广告，特别是个人销售技巧，通用汽车公司在美国汽车业处于统治地位。

土木工程岩土类毕业设计外文翻译

姓名： 学号： 10447425 X X 大学 毕业设计（论文）外文翻译 （2014届） 外文题目Developments in excavation bracing systems 译文题目开挖工程支撑体系的发展 外文出处Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 31 (2012) 107–116 学生XXX 学院XXXX 专业班级XXXXX 校内指导教师XXX 专业技术职务XXXXX 校外指导老师专业技术职务 二○一三年十二月

开挖工程支撑体系的发展 1.引言 几乎所有土木工程建设项目（如建筑物，道路，隧道，桥梁，污水处理厂，管道，下水道）都涉及泥土挖掘的一些工程量。往往由于由相邻的结构，特性线，或使用权空间的限制，必须要一个土地固定系统，以允许土壤被挖掘到所需的深度。历史上，许多挖掘支撑系统已经开发出来。其中，现在比较常见的几种方法是：板桩，钻孔桩墙，泥浆墙。 土地固定系统的选择是由技术性能要求和施工可行性（例如手段，方法）决定的，包括执行的可靠性，而成本考虑了这些之后，其他问题也得到解决。通常环境后果（用于处理废泥浆和钻井液如监管要求）也非常被关注（邱阳、1998）。 土地固定系统通常是建设项目的较大的一个组成部分。如果不能按时完成项目，将极大地影响总成本。通常首先建造支撑，在许多情况下，临时支撑系统是用于支持在挖掘以允许进行不断施工，直到永久系统被构造。临时系统可以被去除或留在原处。 打桩时，因撞击或振动它们可能会被赶入到位。在一般情况下，振动是最昂贵的方法，但只适合于松散颗粒材料，土壤中具有较高电阻（例如，通过鹅卵石）的不能使用。采用打入桩系统通常是中间的成本和适合于软沉积物（包括粘性和非粘性），只要该矿床是免费的鹅卵石或更大的岩石。 通常，垂直元素（例如桩）的前安装挖掘工程和水平元件（如内部支撑或绑回）被安装为挖掘工程的进行下去，从而限制了跨距长度，以便减少在垂直开发弯矩元素。在填充情况下，桩可先设置，从在斜坡的底部其嵌入悬挑起来，安装作为填充进步水平元素（如搭背或土钉）。如果滞后是用来保持垂直元素之间的土壤中，它被安装为挖掘工程的进行下去，或之前以填补位置。 吉尔- 马丁等人（2010）提供了一个数值计算程序，以获取圆形桩承受轴向载荷和统一标志（如悬臂桩）的单轴弯矩的最佳纵筋。他们开发的两种优化流程：用一个或两个直径为纵向钢筋。优化增强模式允许大量减少的设计要求钢筋的用量，这些减少纵向钢筋可达到50％相对传统的，均匀分布的加固方案。 加固桩集中纵向钢筋最佳的位置在受拉区。除了节约钢筋，所述非对称加强钢筋图案提高抗弯刚度，通过增加转动惯量的转化部分的时刻。这种增加的刚性可能会在一段时间内增加的变形与蠕变相关的费用。评估相对于传统的非对称加强桩的优点，对称，钢筋桩被服务的条件下全面测试来完成的，这种试验是为了验证结构的可行性和取得的变形的原位测量。 基于现场试验中，用于优化的加强图案的优点浇铸钻出孔（CIDH）在巴塞罗那的

计算机专业外文文献翻译6

外文文献翻译（译成中文2000字左右）： As research laboratories become more automated,new problems are arising for laboratory managers.Rarely does a laboratory purchase all of its automation from a single equipment vendor. As a result,managers are forced to spend money training their users on numerous different software packages while purchasing support contracts for each. This suggests a problem of scalability. In the ideal world,managers could use the same software package to control systems of any size; from single instruments such as pipettors or readers to large robotic systems with up to hundreds of instruments. If such a software package existed, managers would only have to train users on one platform and would be able to source software support from a single vendor. If automation software is written to be scalable, it must also be flexible. Having a platform that can control systems of any size is far less valuable if the end user cannot control every device type they need to use. Similarly, if the software cannot connect to the customer’s Laboratory Information Management System (LIMS) database,it is of limited usefulness. The ideal automation software platform must therefore have an open architecture to provide such connectivity. Two strong reasons to automate a laboratory are increased throughput and improved robustness. It does not make sense to purchase high-speed automation if the controlling software does not maximize throughput of the system. The ideal automation software, therefore, would make use of redundant devices in the system to increase throughput. For example, let us assume that a plate-reading step is the slowest task in a given method. It would make that if the system operator connected another identical reader into the system, the controller software should be able to use both readers, cutting the total throughput time of the reading step in half. While resource pooling provides a clear throughput advantage, it can also be used to make the system more robust. For example, if one of the two readers were to experience some sort of error, the controlling software should be smart enough to route all samples to the working reader without taking the entire system offline. Now that one embodiment of an ideal automation control platform has been described let us see how the use of C++ helps achieving this ideal possible. DISCUSSION C++: An Object-Oriented Language Developed in 1983 by BjarneStroustrup of Bell Labs,C++ helped propel the concept of object-oriented programming into the mainstream.The term ‘‘object-oriented programming language’’ is a familiar phrase that has been in use for decades. But what does it mean? And why is it relevant for automation software? Essentially, a language that is object-oriented provides three important programming mechanisms:

英语四六级翻译(历史文化社会)

英语四六级段落翻译常用词汇：中国社会多元文化论 cultural pluralism 文化适应 acculturation 社会保障 social security 班车 shuttle bus 相定迁户 a relocated unit or household 大龄青年 single youth above the normal matrimonial age 独生子女 the only child in a family 单亲 single parent 福利彩票 welfare lotteries 家政服务 household management service 民工 migrant laborers 名人 celebrity 农村剩余劳动力 surplus rural labor/laborers 青春期 puberty 全民健身运动 nationwide fitness campaign 全国人口普查 nationwide census 社会保险 social insurance 暂住证 temporary residence permit/card 青少年犯罪 juvenile delinquency 性骚扰 sexual harassment 走私 smuggling 性别歧视 gender/sexual discrimination 年龄歧视 age discrimination 工作歧视 job discrimination 享乐主义hedonism 文盲 illiteracy 贫富分化 disparity between the rich and the poor 盗版 pirated/illegal copies 一国两制 One Country, Two Systems 三个代表 the Three Represents Theory 两会（人大、政协）Two Conferences (NPC and CPPCC) 南南合作 South-South Cooperation 南北对话 North-South Dialog 人大常委会 People’s Congress Standing Committee 法制观念 awareness of law 法制国家 a country with an adequate legal system 改革开放 reform and opening-up 公务员 civil servants 官僚主义作风 the bureaucratic style of work 和谐并存 harmonious coexistence 计划生育 family planning 计划生育基本国策 the basic state policy of family planning

大学毕业论文---软件专业外文文献中英文翻译

软件专业毕业论文外文文献中英文翻译 Object landscapes and lifetimes Tech nically, OOP is just about abstract data typing, in herita nee, and polymorphism, but other issues can be at least as importa nt. The rema in der of this sect ion will cover these issues. One of the most importa nt factors is the way objects are created and destroyed. Where is the data for an object and how is the lifetime of the object con trolled? There are differe nt philosophies at work here. C++ takes the approach that con trol of efficie ncy is the most importa nt issue, so it gives the programmer a choice. For maximum run-time speed, the storage and lifetime can be determined while the program is being written, by placing the objects on the stack (these are sometimes called automatic or scoped variables) or in the static storage area. This places a priority on the speed of storage allocatio n and release, and con trol of these can be very valuable in some situati ons. However, you sacrifice flexibility because you must know the exact qua ntity, lifetime, and type of objects while you're writing the program. If you are trying to solve a more general problem such as computer-aided desig n, warehouse man ageme nt, or air-traffic con trol, this is too restrictive. The sec ond approach is to create objects dyn amically in a pool of memory called the heap. In this approach, you don't know un til run-time how many objects you n eed, what their lifetime is, or what their exact type is. Those are determined at the spur of the moment while the program is runnin g. If you n eed a new object, you simply make it on the heap at the point that you n eed it. Because the storage is man aged dyn amically, at run-time, the amount of time required to allocate storage on the heap is sig ni fica ntly Ion ger tha n the time to create storage on the stack. (Creat ing storage on the stack is ofte n a si ngle assembly in structio n to move the stack poin ter dow n, and ano ther to move it back up.) The dyn amic approach makes the gen erally logical assumpti on that objects tend to be complicated, so the extra overhead of finding storage and releas ing that storage will not have an importa nt impact on the creati on of an object .In additi on, the greater flexibility is esse ntial to solve the gen eral program ming problem. Java uses the sec ond approach, exclusive". Every time you want to create an object, you use the new keyword to build a dyn amic in sta nee of that object. There's ano ther issue, however, and that's the lifetime of an object. With Ian guages that allow objects to be created on the stack, the compiler determines how long the object lasts and can automatically destroy it. However, if you create it on the heap the compiler has no kno wledge of its lifetime. In a Ianguage like C++, you must determine programmatically when to destroy the

工商管理专业英语

工商管理专业英语重点 一．名词解释： 1.what is a manager? 答： A manager is a person who plans,organizes,directs,and controls the allocation of human ,material,financial,and information resources in pursuit of the organization’s goals. 2.What is the difference between middle managers and first-line managers? 答：The heavier emphasis onmanaging group performance and allocating resources represent the most important differences between first-line ang middle managers. 3.How can you characterize top-managers’ work? 答：Top managers spend most of their day(over 75 percent) planning and leading.pressures and demands on top managers can be intense. 4.What is the one of natural outcomes of outsourcing? 答：Modular corporations come into being. 二．选词填空 1.Adrian was in charge of the allocation of available funds. 2.Our firm is oriented towards the export side of the business. 3.The on-time delivery of goods is required in the contract. 4.The graphic display s will be heloful to illustrate the increase of the output. https://www.sodocs.net/doc/b35723116.html,panies cannot survive fierce competition without innovative personnels. 6.Keeping the accounts is part and parcel of my job. 7.The CEO and other high-level executives are often referred to as top management. 8.The tasks that managers do include planning,organizing,leading,andcontrolling the work of an organization. 9.Functional managers supervise employees having expertise in one area,such as accounting,humanresources,sales,finance,marketing,or production. 10.general managers are responsible for the operations of a more complex unit,such as a company or a division. 11.He carried out a number of frauds on trusting people who lent him money.. 12.He would not havesucceeded in such a risky business if he had not been such a clever entrepreneur. 13.They could not tell the commcnding officer from his subordinates. 14.The two old rivals vie for the frist place. 15.Some people cannot be trusted to work wihout supervision. 16.Half of the medical supplies have already been allocated to the victims of the earthquake. 17.Can you differentiate this kind of rose from the others? 18.The factory has laid off workers because of the drop in sales. 19.They were blame for their failure to hold down expenditure. 20.The company has slashed the costs of the project in order to seize the last chance to survive. 21.The company is try ing to diversify its range of products so that they can get more market shares. 22.Mr. Black realized that his company was in dire straits and it went bey ond him to deal with the whole situation. 23.Tom, my next door neighbor, is exempt form military service because of his poor health. 24.With the economic environment improved , his company’s sale in that area is getting less susceptible to the crisis. 25.Mr.White declared that he was not liable for his partner’s debts.