2010-JAP-Happy,healthy,and productive the role of detachment from work during nonwork time

Happy,Healthy,and Productive:

The Role of Detachment From Work During Nonwork Time

Charlotte Fritz

Portland State University

Maya Yankelevich,Anna Zarubin,and

Patricia Barger

Bowling Green State University

Mentally distancing oneself from work during nonwork time can help restore resources lost because of work demands.In this study,we examined possible outcomes of such psychological detachment from work,specifically well-being and job performance.Although employees may need to mentally detach from work to restore their well-being,high levels of detachment may require a longer time to get back into “working mode,”which may be negatively associated with job performance.Our results indicate that higher levels of self-reported detachment were associated with higher levels of significant other-reported life satisfaction as well as lower levels of emotional exhaustion.In addition,we found curvilinear relationships between psychological detachment and coworker reported job performance (task perfor-mance and proactive behavior).Thus,although high psychological detachment may enhance employee well-being,it seems that medium levels of detachment are most beneficial for job performance.Keywords:recovery,well-being,job performance,health,detachment

Do successful organizations need employees who are available 24/7?Should employees accept work-related phone calls after hours and check their work e-mails before going to bed?Should employees reflect on work-related problems after leaving the workplace to solve them the same or next day?The increasing number of hours people work,plus the amount of time they spend on work-related activities (e-mails,phone calls)during off-work time results in a lack of time available for other activities.It also leaves little opportunity to “distance oneself from work”in psy-chological terms.How does a high level of “availability”and lack of “detachment”translate into employee well-being and job per-formance?

Not being able to take time to rest and recover from work demands may impair individuals’health and well-being (Eden,2001;Meijman &Mulder,1998)and reduce performance capa-bilities.However,certain experiences outside of work can help in alleviating reactions to work demands (Eden,2001;Fritz &Son-nentag,2005,2006;Sonnentag,2001).In this study,we examined associations between “getting away”from work (i.e.,psycholog-ical detachment)and employee well-being and job performance.Doing so,we expanded research on psychological detachment in several ways.In addition to well-being,we examined job perfor-mance as a possible outcome of psychological detachment.More-over,we tested these associations beyond linear relationships by examining curvilinear relationships between detachment and job https://www.sodocs.net/doc/7d9218930.html,stly,we attempted to overcome one common criticism of previous research—common source bias—by using

significant other reports of employee well-being and coworker reports of employee job performance.

What Is Psychological Detachment?

Etzion,Eden,and Lapidot (1998)—in the context of respites from work—described detachment as an “individual’s sense of being away from the work situation”(p.579).Psychological detachment is further characterized by not being involved in work-related activities—such as phone calls,e-mails,or other work-related tasks—during off work time (Sonnentag &Fritz,2007).Thus,psychological detachment is defined by not being involved in work-related feelings or thoughts.Although Etzion et al.exam-ined the role of detachment as a moderator,we propose direct relationships between detachment,employee well-being,and per-formance outcomes.

When employees leave their workplace they transition from a work role to a nonwork role.Ashforth,Kreiner,and Fugate (2000)suggested two concepts to better understand this transition process,namely segmentation and integration .High levels of segmentation between life domains (work and nonwork)decrease role blurring and make boundaries between roles less flexible and less perme-able.Boundaries low in permeability make the transition between roles more difficult.High levels of integration increase the per-meability of boundaries between life domains and increase blur-ring.By disengaging from their work role,employees psycholog-ically detach from work-related issues,indicating segmentation of both life domains.

At its core,psychological detachment is conceptualized in terms of a specific cognitive–emotional state (e.g.,the absence of work-related thoughts and feelings).Although research on attitudes toward work (i.e.,job involvement,job commitment,job satisfac-tion)may appear to overlap with psychological detachment,the concepts differ in one particular way:Detachment is described more in terms of specific experiences during nonwork time,and

Charlotte Fritz,Department of Psychology,Portland State University;Maya Yankelevich,Anna Zarubin,and Patricia Barger,Department of Psychology,Bowling Green State University.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Charlotte Fritz,Portland State University,Psychology Department,P.O.Box 751,Portland,OR 97207.E-mail:fritzc@https://www.sodocs.net/doc/7d9218930.html,

Journal of Applied Psychology ?2010American Psychological Association 2010,Vol.95,No.5,977–9830021-9010/10/$12.00DOI:10.1037/a0019462

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the latter concepts refer to attitudinal connections with work. Factor-analytic findings from Sonnentag and Kruel(2006),for example,indicate that job involvement and detachment seem to be empirically different concepts.In the next sections,we further explore the relationship between psychological detachment and two specific employee outcomes:well-being and job performance.

Detachment and Employee Well-Being Unfavorable work environments can impair employee well-being and health(Leitner&Resch,2005;Maslach,Schaufeli,& Leiter,2001);however,experiences during nonwork time may help in replenishing individual well-being(Sonnentag&Fritz, 2007).For example,Sonnentag and Fritz(2007)found significant relationships between reported psychological detachment and sev-eral indicators of well-being,such as emotional exhaustion(r??.56)and life satisfaction(r?.37).Similarly,Sonnentag and Bayer(2005)found that psychological detachment after work was associated with better mood at bedtime.

Why is psychological detachment associated with higher levels of employee well-being?One reason may be that when employees leave work they exit their work role and enter a nonwork role (Ashforth et al.,2000).This transition removes work demands and, in turn,allows the individual to unwind(Meijman&Mulder, 1998).If work demands consume individual resources(Meijman &Mulder,1998),such as the capability to focus attention,then being away from work allows the restoration of such resources. More specifically,because psychological detachment refers to distancing oneself from work demands(or any work-related thoughts or actions),it helps restore depleted psychological re-sources(Hobfoll,1989,1998;Muraven&Baumeister,2000).The restoration of resources then should become apparent in increased positive mood,a feeling of regeneration,higher levels of life satisfaction,and lower levels of emotional exhaustion. Although research clearly supports relationships between psy-chological detachment and measures of employee well-being (Sonnentag&Bayer,2005;Sonnentag,Binnewies,&Mojza, 2008;Sonnentag&Fritz,2007;Sonnentag&Natter,2004),stud-ies have mostly relied on self-report data of the predictor(detach-ment)and outcome variables(well-being).Thus,common method bias may have accounted for at least part of the relationships identified.A recent study by Sonnentag,Kuttler,and Fritz(2009) indicates the usefulness of spouse reports by showing that rela-tionships between psychological detachment and employee ex-haustion were similar for spouse(???.28)and employee(???.37)reports of detachment.Accordingly,we included significant other reports of well-being to reduce effects of common method bias(Ilies et al.,2007;Song,Foo,&Uy,2008).

For this study,we chose two indicators of well-being,namely emotional exhaustion and life satisfaction.Emotional exhaustion is an indicator of employees’work-related well-being.It is charac-terized by a sense of emotional strain,tiredness,and exhaustion related to work(Demerouti,Bakker,Kantas,&Vardakou,2003). We measured life satisfaction as an indicator of the global percep-tion of one’s quality of life(Diener,Emmons,Larsen,&Griffin, 1985).We hypothesized that higher levels of psychological de-tachment during nonwork time would be associated with higher levels of employee well-being.

Hypothesis1a:Psychological detachment is negatively asso-ciated with emotional exhaustion as perceived by others.

Hypothesis1b:Psychological detachment is positively asso-ciated with life satisfaction as perceived by others.

Detachment and Job Performance

Although research on psychological detachment and well-being clearly seems to indicate positive linear relationships(Sonnentag et al.,2008;Sonnentag&Fritz,2007),research on detachment and job performance is lacking.As discussed previously,we assume that psychological detachment from work allows the restoration of resources depleted during work.If individuals do not unwind enough from work,depleted resources,such as lower ability to focus and lower levels of attention,may become apparent in lower levels of job performance.Thus,we assume that low levels of detachment are associated with low job performance.

In contrast,very high levels of detachment may indicate higher boundaries between nonwork and work roles(Ashforth et al., 2000).As a result of these boundaries,employees may need longer to get back into“working mode.”The implication,of course,is that at the start of a work day,employees will not be as productive as they could have been had they spent some time prior to work thinking about the upcoming day.For example,they may need time to plan which tasks need to be done and which may have priority over others.In addition,employees may need time to think through a work-related problem that needs to be solved.If some nonwork time had been used to think about the problem,they may have found a solution in a shorter period of time once they got back to work.Thus,we suggest that very high levels of detachment may be associated with lower levels of performance.

In summary,we propose that very high and very low levels of detachment will be detrimental to job performance.As a result, medium levels of detachment will be associated with the highest levels of performance.Accordingly,we propose a curvilinear relationship between detachment and job performance.

In this study,we explore two performance-related outcomes, namely task performance and proactive behavior.Task perfor-mance refers to behaviors“that are recognized by formal reward systems and are part of the requirements as described in job descriptions”(L.J.Williams&Anderson,1991,p.606).High levels of task performance indicate that the employee fulfills the work tasks that are expected of him or her.For example,a secretary would make phone calls,send e-mails,or make copies regarding his or her specified work domain.

Proactive behavior includes an employee’s self-directed actions to anticipate or initiate change in the work system or work role (Griffin,Neal,&Parker,2007)and to support personal or orga-nizational effectiveness(Watson&Clark,1992).An employee may develop ways to fulfill tasks more efficiently or improve procedures within the work group.Again,to reduce common method bias,we used self-reports of psychological detachment and other-reports of job performance,namely coworker ratings of employee task performance and proactive behaviors.

Hypothesis2a:There is a curvilinear relationship between psychological detachment and task performance,such that task performance is highest under medium levels of detach-ment.

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Hypothesis2b:There is a curvilinear relationship between psychological detachment and proactive work behavior,such that proactive work behavior is highest under medium levels of detachment.

Method

Participants and Procedure

Participants were administrative employees from seven U.S. colleges and universities.After schools agreed to participate in the study,we drafted a recruitment e-mail that was then sent out through the school to potential participants.Survey packets were sent out to299employees who consented to participate.Each survey packet consisted of an information letter;three clearly distinguishable surveys;and three stamped,preaddressed return envelopes.A flier for a lottery raffle was also included;partici-pants were entered into a raffle for restaurant gift certificates for each survey that was returned,with up to three entries possible per participant(one each for the self-report,the significant other report,and the coworker report).This study was also part of a larger data collection effort.The first survey booklet was to be filled out by the primary participant/target individual and included, among others,measures of detachment as well as negative affec-tivity,with the latter being used as a control variable in the analyses.The target employee was supposed to choose a coworker that knows his or her work well.The second survey was then filled out by that coworker and pertained to the target’s job performance. The third survey was to be given to the target’s significant other or close friend,and it contained measures of the target’s well-being as well as the significant other’s negative affectivity.To protect confidentiality,each of the respondents returned their survey di-rectly to the researchers using the provided prepaid envelopes.The surveys were matched upon return via a code created by the researchers.Out of the172participants who returned question-naires(response rate57%),65had to be left out of the analyses because of missing data or missing coworker or significant other reports.The final sample of107participants included91women (85%)and16men(15%).The average age of participants was45 years(SD?10.71).Mean job tenure was10years(SD?8.96). Of the participants,45%held supervisory positions;some of the many jobs represented were administrative assistant,coordinator of programs,director,web developer,and library associate.Of the participants,39%were college graduates,30%held a master’s degree,and5%had obtained a doctoral degree.

The majority of the participants worked full-time(94%),and mean time worked per week was40hr(SD?2.46).Forty-three participants(40%)had at least one child.A comparison between the65“unmatched”participants and the sample we finally used for our analyses did not reveal any significant differences for the main variables or the demographic variables we measured,with one exception:The unmatched participants worked1.6hr less per week than the matched sample.

Measures

Detachment.The Detachment Scale(Sonnentag&Fritz, 2007)consisted of four well-validated items that referred to the target’s views of his/her nonwork time over the past few weeks(“I got a break from the demands of work”;“I forgot about work”;“I didn’t think about work at all”;“I distanced myself from work”). The rating scale ranged from1(strongly disagree)to5(strongly agree).Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was.84.

Outcome variables.Well-being variables were reported by the target’s significant other or close friend and pertained to the experiences of the target individual.

Emotional exhaustion.The Oldenburg Burnout Inventory (Demerouti,Bakker,Nachreiner,&Schaufeli,2001)was used to assess exhaustion in the past few weeks as reported by the target’s significant other.A sample item from the scale is“After work, he/she needed more time to relax than in the past to become fit again.”The scale consisted of eight items on a4-point rating scale ranging from1(totally disagree)to4(totally agree).Cronbach’s alpha for emotional exhaustion in this sample was.84.

Life satisfaction.The significant other report of the target’s life satisfaction in the past few weeks(e.g.,“In most ways his/her life was close to his/her ideal”;Diener et al.,1985)consisted of five items on a5-point rating scale ranging from1(strongly disagree)to5(strongly agree).Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was.87.

Performance-related outcomes.

Task performance.The target person’s coworker rated task performance using a seven-item scale(L.J.Williams&Anderson, 1991).Responses were given on a5-point scale ranging from1 (not at all)to5(always).The coworkers were instructed to rate behavior over the past few weeks,with a sample item being “He/she adequately completed assigned duties.”Cronbach’s alpha was.79.

Proactive behavior.Personal initiative—that is,taking an ac-tive and self-starting approach to work(Frese,Kring,Soose,& Zempel,1996)—was used as an indicator of proactive work be-havior and was also rated by the target’s coworker.We used a seven-item scale(Frese,Fay,Hilburger,Leng,&Tag,1997)that included such items as“During the past few weeks,he/she at-tacked problems actively”and“During the past few weeks,he/she took initiative immediately even when others didn’t.”Although the scale was initially developed to measure a rather stable behavioral pattern,recent research has indicated variability in personal initia-tive over time(e.g.,Fritz&Sonnentag,2009;Sonnentag,2003). Therefore,we adapted the scale to refer to the past few weeks. Responses were rated on a5-point scale ranging from1(not at all) to5(always).Cronbach’s alpha was.90.

To test the factor structure of our outcome variables,we con-ducted confirmatory factor analyses.For emotional exhaustion and life satisfaction,we examined whether a two-factor model was superior to a one-factor model.We used a chi-square difference test to compare model fits.The two-factor model provided a fit superior to that of a one-factor model,??2(1,N?107)?171.81, p?.01.Confirmatory factor analyses including task performance and proactive behavior items revealed that a two-factor model fit the data better than a one-factor model,??2(1,N?107)?304.18,p?.01.

Control variables.

Negative affectivity.Previous research has found relationships between negative affectivity and well-being(Brief,Burke,George, Robinson,&Webster,1988;Burke,Brief,&George,1993). Therefore,we controlled for both the target and significant other’s general level of negative affectivity in the analyses involving well-being as the dependent variable.We measured negative af-

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fectivity using10items from the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule(Watson,Clark,&Tellegen,1988).Participants were asked to rate how they felt“in general”regarding10adjectives that tapped negative affect(e.g.,upset,irritable)on a scale ranging from1(very slightly or not at all)to5(extremely).The scale demonstrated high reliability(??.84for target,and??.90for significant other).

Work characteristics.To examine whether psychological de-tachment would be able to explain variance in performance and well-being beyond aspects of the work environment,we decided to control for two well-known work characteristics,namely,work-load and job autonomy.Both variables have been found to be associated with employee outcomes and may additionally be as-sociated with psychological detachment from work during non-work time.Workload(five items)and job autonomy(five items) were measured with scales developed by Spector and Jex(1998). Cronbach’s alpha was.85and.80for workload and job autonomy, respectively.

Demographic variables.We additionally decided to control for gender,age,supervisory role,and job tenure.

Results

We used hierarchical regression analyses to test Hypotheses1 and2.However,the specific procedure was slightly different for each hypothesis.To test Hypothesis1,we controlled for negative affectivity of the target and significant other when predicting well-being outcomes(Hypotheses1a and1b),and thus,we entered it into Step1of the hierarchical regression for these outcomes (emotional exhaustion,life satisfaction).In addition,we controlled for workload,autonomy,and demographic variables.In Step2,we included psychological detachment as a predictor to test whether it explained variance in the outcome variables over and above the control variables.For Hypotheses2a and2b,we included work-load,autonomy,and demographic variables in Step1and psycho-logical detachment as a predictor in Step2to test for a possible main effect.In Step3,we entered the squared term for psycho-logical detachment to examine the hypothesized curvilinear effect. Correlations between all study variables can be found in Table1. Detachment and Well-Being

As Table2indicates,Hypotheses1a and1b were supported. Specifically,after controlling for negative affectivity(target and significant other),psychological detachment significantly pre-dicted employee well-being(significant other report).Higher lev-els of detachment(self-report)were associated with lower levels of emotional exhaustion and higher levels of life satisfaction.The amount of variance explained by psychological detachment was 6%and7%,respectively.

Detachment and Job Performance

Results of regression analyses for job performance are displayed in Table3.Findings indicate that linear effects for psychological detachment were not significant.However,as hypothesized,psy-chological detachment showed significant curvilinear relationships with task performance and proactive behavior.A closer look at the data indicates that medium levels of detachment were,in fact,associated with the highest levels of job performance,whereas very high and very low detachment were associated with lower levels of job performance(see Table4for details).Thus,Hypoth-eses2a and2b are supported.

To ensure that there were no curvilinear relationships between detachment and well-being in addition to linear ones,we ran models entering the squared term for detachment in an additional step in the regression equation.Results indicate no significant curvilinear relationships.

Discussion

In this study,we examined relationships between psychological detachment and two important work-related outcomes:well-being and job performance.We found linear relationships between de-tachment and indicators of well-being(emotional exhaustion and life satisfaction),and we identified curvilinear relationships be-tween detachment and job performance(task performance and proactive behavior).Our findings concerning the detachment and well-being relationship replicated previous research(Sonnentag et al.,2008;Sonnentag&Fritz,2007).In addition,our research provides new insights into the relationship between detachment and job performance,a heretofore unexplored variable.In addition, our findings suggest that it may be necessary to test more complex relationships between detachment and possible outcomes by going beyond linear relationships.

Implications for Theory and Future Research

Our findings indicate that Ashforth et al.’s(2000)theorizing regarding boundaries and transitions between life domains can be helpful in understanding relationships between detachment from work and employee outcomes.Specifically,high levels of segmen-tation(high levels of psychological detachment)seem to be asso-ciated with employee well-being,and too much or too little seg-mentation can hinder performance-related behaviors.On the basis of this theoretical approach,future research should explore which experiences or behavior can act as boundaries that help create a sense of detachment from work.Results for our study further support the theoretical assumption that psychological detachment from work allows employees to“get away from”work demands, possibly resulting in the replenishment of resources that become apparent in lower emotional exhaustion and higher life satisfac-tion.

One question for future research could also be whether work is always depleting.If work is not depleting,is psychological de-tachment still needed and beneficial?Further,in situations of low detachment,does the quality of thoughts have an impact on the outcomes studied?Although there is some indication that the type of work reflection—positive or negative—during nonwork time matters(Binnewies,Sonnentag,&Mojza,2009;Fritz&Sonnen-tag,2005,2006),more research is needed to shed light on the dynamics of specific thoughts off work and their impact on em-ployees’experiences and behaviors.In addition,future research may explore ways for employees to detach during work(e.g., during lunch breaks,while daydreaming)and their impact on employee well-being and job performance.Although the outcomes of such detachment may be similar,the underlying processes and pursued activities may differ.

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Future research should also examine the transitions form work to nonwork roles as well as nonwork to work roles in more detail. For example,individuals that successfully detach from work dur-ing nonwork time can engage more actively in nonwork activities, which may explain the relationship with well-being.Furthermore, it is important to understand the extent to which employees detach from nonwork thoughts and feelings(family issues,hobbies,etc.) while at work and whether a lack of such detachment impairs well-being and performance at work.Further,how could employ-ees use a commute from work to home and back to successfully detach from the life domain they leave behind?

Limitations

Our findings should be interpreted in light of the study’s limi-tations.One weakness of our study is the use of a cross-sectional design,which limits inferences of causality.Future research should apply longitudinal designs to help understand causal paths between psychological detachment and well-being as well as per-formance outcomes.In addition,our sample—administrative uni-versity staff—may differ from other occupations in some regards. Thus,future research should further explore the validity of our findings using samples from different occupations.

The small final sample may also be a concern;however,because we hardly found any differences when comparing the unmatched cases with the final sample(matched cases),we think this allevi-ates the concern at least somewhat.In addition,because our findings regarding relationships between detachment and well-being replicated earlier findings(e.g.,Sonnentag&Fritz,2007), we assume that there is no major bias because of small sample size. Although we perceive the use of other-reports for our outcomes (well-being and performance)as a strength(as suggested by Pod-sakoff,MacKenzie,Lee,&Podsakoff,2003),we agree that this approach may be associated with additional biases.However,with regard to well-being outcomes(exhaustion and life satisfaction), we think that controlling for the significant others’level of nega-tive affect helps control for some of the possible biases.In addi-

Table1

Means,Standard Deviations,and Correlations Between Study Variables

Study variables M SD12345678910111213

1.Gender

2.Age44.6510.04

3.Job tenure120.22107?.01.58??

4.Supervisory role 1.550.50.25???.19??.28??

5.Workload 3.470.7

6.09.18.15?.24?(.85)

6.Job autonomy 1.720.63.12?.1

7.16.16.00(.80)

7.Employee NA 1.760.55.02?.33???.23?.06?.09.22?(.84)

8.Significant other NA 1.660.66?.21??.02.00?.08.17.12.24?(.90)

9.Detachment 3.230.83.10?.10?.06.18?.20??.02?.18?.10(.84)

10.Exhaustion 2.210.61.12.03.05.05.33??.22?.40??.25??.38??(.84)

11.Life satisfaction 3.220.80?.16?.04?.02?.06?.16?.20??.37???.41??.33???.57??(.87)

12.Task performance 3.670.29?.11.02.03?.13.06?.09?.03.12.04?.16?.03(.79)

13.Proactive behavior 4.240.58?.05.37??.19??.08.03?.07?.19?.10?.09?.08?.01.47??(.90) Note.Cronbach’s alphas are presented on the diagonal.Gender:1?male,2?female;Job tenure?number of months employed;Supervisory role:1?supervisory,2?nonsupervisory;NA?negative affectivity.

?p?.05.??p?.01.

Table2

Hierarchical Regression of Well-Being on Detachment From Work

Variable

Emotional exhaustion Life satisfaction

??R2R2??R2R2

Step1:Control variables.36??.36??.33??.33??Gender.07?.23?

Age.07?.06

Job tenure.09?.06

Supervisory role.15?.08

Workload.30???.05

Job autonomy.12?.07

Employee NA.36???.23?

Significant other NA.10?.37??

Step2:Detachment(linear)?.26??.06??.42??.28??.07??.40??Note.Beta weights are standardized and refer to the full model.Gender:1?male,2?female;Job tenure?number of months employed;Supervisory role:1?supervisory,2?nonsupervisory;NA?negative affectivity.

?p?.05.??p?.01.981

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tion,our findings for well-being replicate self-report results(e.g., Sonnentag&Fritz,2007).Therefore,we are confident in the accuracy of the significant other reports.Because this study is the first in which relationships between detachment and performance-related outcomes were explicitly examined,we recommend that future research examine relationships between detachment and performance-related outcomes using and comparing self-reports as well as other reports.

Implications for Practice

Although we believe that more research on psychological de-tachment from work is necessary,our current findings nevertheless have some implications for practice.First,it is important to point out that detachment seems to be associated with employee well-being and performance-related outcomes,although in different ways.

Organizations and supervisors can support employee detach-ment by insisting that employees be unavailable(e.g.,via e-mail or phone)during their nonwork time and by scheduling their employ-ees’work demands accordingly.Allowing employees to detach during nonwork time can help employee outcomes that are rele-vant for organizations as well.

With regard to performance outcomes,organizations and super-visors should encourage their employees to give themselves time to transition between nonwork and work roles.One idea could be to create a list of work tasks that need to be completed at work that day(and the order in which to do so)in the morning before or when getting to work.The commute between home and work could also serve as a transition period between both domains and allow the person to reconnect with his or her work role.Further, supervisors can act as role models by not being available during nonwork time and by not initiating work-related communication with their employees during this time,thereby allowing detach-ment to occur.

The importance of appropriately detaching from work should not be underestimated.Research has indicated that negative expe-riences at work may spillover into family life(Bolger,DeLongis, Kessler,&Schilling,1989;Ilies et al.,2007;Song et al.,2008; K.J.Williams&Alliger,1994;K.J.Williams,Suls,Alliger,& Learner,1991).Therefore,detaching from negative work events during nonwork time can help prevent such negative spillover processes.

References

Ashforth,B.E.,Kreiner,G.E.,&Fugate,M.(2000).All in a day’s work: Boundaries and micro role transitions.Academy of Management Review, 25,472–491.

Binnewies,C.,Sonnentag,S.,&Mojza,E.J.(2009).Feeling recovered and thinking about the good sides of one’s work.Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,14,243–256.

Bolger,N.,DeLongis,A.,Kessler,R.C.,&Schilling,E.A.(1989).Effects of daily stress on negative mood.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,57,808–818.

Brief,A.P.,Burke,M.J.,George,J.M.,Robinson,B.S.,&Webster,J. (1988).Should negative affectivity remain an unmeasured variable in the study of job stress?Journal of Applied Psychology,73,193–198. Burke,M.J.,Brief,A.P.,&George,J.M.(1993).The role of negative affectivity in understanding relations between self-reports of stressors and strains:A comment on the applied psychology literature.Journal of Applied Psychology,78,402–412.

Demerouti,E.,Bakker,A.B.,Kantas,A.,&Vardakou,I.(2003).The convergent validity of two burnout instruments:A multitrait–multimethod analysis.European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 18,296–307.

Demerouti,E.,Bakker,A.B.,Nachreiner,F.,&Schaufeli,W.B.(2001). The job demands–resources model of burnout.Journal of Applied Psy-chology,86,499–512.

Table3

Hierarchical Regression of Task Performance and Proactive Behavior on Detachment From Work

Variable

Task performance Proactive behavior

??R2R2??R2R2

Step1:Control variables.03.03.14?.14?

Gender?.06?.03

Age?.03.37??

Job tenure?.02?.04

Supervisory role?.07.04

Workload.10?.01

Autonomy?.09?.03

Step2:Detachment(linear).02.01.04?.11.00.14

Step3:Detachment(curvilinear)?.26?.06?.10??.21?.04?.18?

Note.Beta weights are standardized and refer to the full model.Gender:1?male,2?female;Job tenure?

number of months employed;Supervisory role:1?supervisory,2?nonsupervisory.

?p?.05.??p?.01.

Table4

Mean Levels of Task Performance and Proactive Behavior at

Quintiles of Detachment

Quintile Detachment Task performance Proactive behavior

Quintile1 2.05 3.60 4.24

Quintile2 2.80 3.76 4.29

Quintile3 3.33 3.73 4.31

Quintile4 3.71 3.73 4.40

Quintile5 4.32 3.57 4.00

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Eden,D.(2001).Vacations and other respites:Studying stress on and off the job.In C.L.Cooper&I.T.Robertson(Eds.),International review of industrial and organizational psychology(Vol.16,pp.121–146). New York,NY:Wiley.

Etzion,D.,Eden,D.,&Lapidot,Y.(1998).Relief from job stressors and burnout:Reserve service as a respite.Journal of Applied Psychology,83, 577–585.

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Received September9,2008

Revision received January19,2010

Accepted January22,2010Ⅲ

983

RESEARCH REPORTS

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语法填空专项练4篇 ( 1 ) ( 2) 第二节语法填空(共10小题；每小题1. 5分，满分15分) 阅读下面短文，按照句子结构的语法性和上下文连贯的要求，在空格处填人一个适当的词或使用括号中词语的正确形式填空，并将答案填写在答题卡标号为3l-40的相应位置上。There was once a boy who had a temper. His father gave him a bag of nails and told him that every time he lost his temper, he ___31__ hammer a nail into the back of the fence. The first day the boy ___32__(drive)37 nails into the fence. Over the next few weeks as he learned to control his anger, the number of nails hammered ___33__ (gradual) decreased. He discovered ___34__ was easier to hold his temper than to drive nails into the fence. Finally the day came ___35__ he didn’t lose his temper. He told his father and his father suggested that the boy now___36__ (pull) out one nail for each day so that he was able to hold his anger. The days passed and the boy told his father that all the nails were gone. The father took the boy ___37__ the hand and led him to the fence. He said, “Look at the holes in the fence. The fence will never be the same. When you say things in anger; they leave a scar (疤痕) just like the___38__ on the fence. It won’t matter how many times you say I am sorry, ___39__ wound is still there. A verbal wound is as bad as a physical one. Friends are very rare. They make you smile and encourage you ___40__ (success). They lend an ear, and always want to open their hearts to us.” 2 31. must根据上下文，这里应该填意为“必须”的情态动词 32. drove此处应该是谓语动词的过去式。 33. gradually这里需要副词修饰动词decreased，意为“逐渐减少”。 34. it这里作形式主语指代后面的不定式短语。 35. when引导定语从句修饰主语the day，因谓语动词太短仅came一个词，故 将从句后置。全句意思是：他不发脾气的那一天终于到来了。 36.(should) pull suggest (建议)后的宾语从句谓语动词常用虚拟语气，即should + V-原形，should 可省略。 37. by take sb.by the hand是习惯搭配，凡表示“拉、拖、握、揪、牵”等意思的 英语动词都是这个搭配，即take/seize/pull/lead…sb. by the sleeve/hair/arm/nose/ear…。 38. ones指代上文的scar，这里用复数指代篱笆上被钉子顶过的洞痕。 39. the wound在这里是特指前面提到的疤痕scar，故应该加定冠词。 40. to succeed 鼓励某人做某事：encourage sb. to do sth. ( 3 ) 第二节语法填空(共10小题；每小题1. 5分，满分15分) 阅读下面短文，按照句子结构的语法性和上下文连贯的要求，在空格处填人一个适当的词或使用括号中词语的正确形式填空，并将答案填写在答题卡标号为3l-40的相应位置上。

高一英语语法专项训练练习及答案

专题一名词、介词和数词 1．The_________is just around the corner and you won’t miss it． A．bicycle’s shop B．bicycle shop C．bicycles shop D．bicycles’shop 2．Rose was wild with joy________the result of the examination． A．to B．at C．by D．as 3．________people in the world are sending information by E-mail every-day． A．Several million B．Many millions C．Several millions D．Many million 4．This is not a match．We’re playing chess just for________． A．habit B．hobby C．fun D．game 5．No matter what you do，you should put your________into it． A．mind B．heart C．brain D．thought 6．There are usually at least two________of looking at every question． A．means B．directions C．views D．ways 7．My chest________when I make a deep breath，doctor． A．harms B．wounds C．hurts D．injures 8．The home improvements have taken what little there is________my spare time． A．from B．in C．of D．at 9．Luckily，the bullet narrowly missed the captain________an inch． A．by B．at C．to D．from 10．To regain their________after an exhausting game，the players lay in the grass． A．force B．energy C．power D．health 11．According to the recent research，heavy coffee drinking and heart attack is not necessarily________and effect． A．reason B．impact C．fact D．cause 12．Every new________has the possibility of making or losing money． A．event B．venture C．adventure D．expedition 13．The conference has been held to discuss the effects of tourism________the wildlife in the area． A．in B．off C．at D．with 14．The young dancers looked so charming in their beautiful clothes that we took________pictures of them． A．many of B．masses of C．the number of D．a large amount of 15．“I don’t think it's my________that the TV blew up．I just turned it on，that’s a11．”said the boy． A．error B．mistake C．fault D．duty 16．One of the consequences of our planet’s being warming up is a(n) ________in the number of natural disasters． A．result B．account C．reason D．increase 17. Life is tough in the city．In order to lose their________，some people drink alcohol． A．temper B．mood C．consciousness D．pressures 18．I don’t mind picking up your things from the store．________，the walk will do! me good． A．Sooner or later B．Still C．In time D．Besides 19．The accident is reported to have occurred _______the first Sunday in February． A．at B．on C．in D．to 20．________two exams to worry about，I have to work really hard this weekend． A．With B．Besides C．As for D．Because of 21．He got to the station early，________missing his train．． A．in case of B．instead of C．for fear of D．in search of 22． I feel that one of my main duties________a teacher is to help the students to be．