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跨文化交际课件word版

跨文化交际课件word版
跨文化交际课件word版

Unit 1 introduction

一.文化

文化是冻结了的人际交流,而交流是流动着的文化----W.B. Pearce, 1994.

背景:长期以来,文化被认为是无处不在,无所不包的人类知识和行为的总体。被笼统地当作“生活方式”,社会生活的一切方面,积淀物,价值观念体系,众多规范,乃至艺术,政治,经济,教育,修养,文学,语言,思维的总和。概括地讲,文化即是人们所思,所言,所为,所觉的总和。在不同的生态或自然环境下,不同的民族创造了自己特有的文化,也被自己的文化所塑造。

It is said that there are at least 150 definitions about culture.

“Culture may be defined as what a society does and thinks”(Sapir, 1921)

“Culture is man’s medium, there is not one aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by culture. This means personality, how people express themselves, including shows of emotion, the way they think, how they move, how problems are solved, how their cities are planned and laid out, how transportation systems function and are organized, as well as how economic and government systems are put together and fuction.” (E.T. Hall,1959)

“A culture is a collection of beliefs, habits, living patterns, and behaviors which are held more or less in common by people who occupy particular geographic areas” (D.Brown, 1978)

文化的特性:

1). 文化是由人们的内隐和外显行为组成的。内隐是文化的规则性;外显表现为人们的

交际行为。

2). 文化不是与生俱来的,而是通过符号被人们习得和传授的知识

3). 历史所衍生及选择的传统观念,尤其是世界观,价值观等文化核心成分,会像电脑

程序一样为人们编制交际行为的内容和方式,因此世界观,价值观被称之为文化实体,民族性格。

4). 文化是群体行为规则的集合,可以被理想的推定出现在某一社会或群体的所有成员

的行为之中。这样,我们就有了诸如中国文化,美国文化,东方文化,西方文化等提法。

5). 文化是一种集体无意识,其产物就是群体或民族中心主义。群体民族中心主义是人

类在交际过程中,无意识的用自己的文化作为解释和评价别人行为的标准。其结果是:自己的行为被无意识的被认为是正确的。因此,群体或民族中心主义会导致交际失误,严重时会带来文化冲突。

E.T. Hall has pointed out : “Culture controls behavior in deep and persisting ways, many of

which are outside of awareness and therefore beyond conscious control of the individual.”

Therefore, culture can be viewed as an iceberg. Nine-tenths of an iceberg is out of sight (below the water line ). Likewise, nine-tenths of culture is outside of conscious awareness, which is called “deep culture”.

文化的深处时常并不是在典章制度之中,而是在人们洒扫应对的日常起居之间。一举手,一投足,看似那样自然,不加做作,可是事实上却完全没有任意之处,可以说都受着一套从小潜移默化中得来的价值体系所控制。在什么场合下,应当怎样举止,文化早替我们安排好,不必我们临时考虑,犹豫取决。愈是基本的价值,我们就愈是不假思索。行为是最不经意的,也就是最深入的文化表现。(费孝通:美国与美国人)

6). 文化是动态多变的。

二.交际

交际(communicate)来源于拉丁语commonis一词,commonis是common 的意思。很明显,交际这一概念与“共同”(commonness)密切相关,即“共同”或“共享”是交

际的前提。只有统一文化的人在很多方面具有共享,才能进行有效的交际。

1.交际的特征:

1)符号是人们交际时使用的主要手段,任何符号都可以用来交际。语言符号,非语言符号等。

2)交际是一个编码和译码的过程(a process of encoding and decoding)。编码是一个把思想感情,意念等编成语码,诸如言语和非言语行为,以及书面语等符号的过

程。

3)交际行为是文化和社会行为,它必然发生在社会之中,并受社会中众多因素的影响和制约。影响交际的众多因素包括:a).宽泛的交际环境,包括价值观念,文化

取向,宇宙观,社会结构,物理环境等。b). 包括交际双方的社会地位,角色关

系,交际发生的场合,时间和所涉及的话题等。

4)交际活动时有规则可循的。除了固定的词法,句法等语言规则之外,还有具体的文化规范及其制约下的语用规则。统一文化的人共享这些规则,因此他们之间交

际并不困难,但不同文化的人相互交往时,由于在规则方面存在差异,交际将变

得十分困难。

2.交际定义:交际是符号的活动,它是一个动态多变的编译码过程,当交际者把意义赋

予言语或非言语符号时,就产生了交际。

3.组成交际的要素:

1). 信息源/行为源(message or behavioral source)通常指有交际需要和愿望的具体的人。

2). 编码(encoding)内心所思是不能够直接与别人分享的,我们必须依赖符号来表达内心世界。

3)信息(message)4) 信息接收者/反映者(receiver/responder)5) 渠道(channel)We may use sound, sight, smell, taste, touch to carry a message. 6) 译码(decoding)7) 反应(response)8) 反馈(feedback)As receivers attempt to decode the meaning of messages, they are likely to give some kind of verbal or non-verbal response. This response is called feedback, tells the sender whether the message has been heard or seen, understood.

三.跨文化交际

1.跨文化交际概念

跨文化交际是在美国近二三十年兴起的学科。

现代高科技的发展,传播通讯技术的改进,多媒体的诞生及世界性互联网,还有经济的全球化,这些变化带来了全球性的时间和空间的紧缩,不同社会,文化以及不同地区的人们产生了相互交往的强烈愿望。这种新生活无论从心理学,社会学乃至语言学的角度来看都是各种文化交织多边的产物。不同社会和文化相互交织已经是回避不了的现实。

因此催生了跨文化交际这样一门研究。

定义:跨文化交际学是以运用众多相关学科的理论研究成果为基础,揭示不同文化的人们在交际时会发生什么,怎样发生,为什么发生,产生什么后果,以及如何解决和避免交际障碍和文化冲突,以达到有效交际的一门学科。这门学科在文化对比的基础上,以大量的数据和事实让读者明了不同文化在交际过程中所可能产生的各种文化差异,发展人们对文化差异的高度敏感性。

跨文化交际具有多学科性,与其直接或间接接壤的学科有人类学,语言学,社会学,文

化学,心理学,语用学,哲学,符号学,交际民俗学等等。

2.跨文化交际必要性

国际间科技,贸易,教育,能源,经济,企业管理,公共事业,宇宙开发乃至战争多方面问题都牵连到各个国家。低效率的交流沟通,相互间的误解,以及其他交际障碍都可能导致文化冲突,心理障碍,甚至无穷无尽的灾难。文化上的差异会给不同文化背景的人们之间相互理解和睦相处带来极大的困难。因此,认识跨文化交际交际的本质,了解其过程,探究在这一过程中会发生什么,怎样发生,产生什么后果,故何解决和避免交际障碍,冲突等,已成为时代的需求,跨文化交际研究迫在眉睫。

Misinterpretations (misunderstanding) can take place at a variety of levels. They can take place at the level of understanding, at the level of ideas or value, and sometimes at the level of feelings. The most series are those that take place at the level of feelings. V ery often, misunderstanding at this level come, not from ill will, but from good will.

Sometimes we hurt another’s feelings without wanting to do it and without knowing that we are doing it.

It is only when we assume that other people do as we do and they assume that we do as they do that feelings are hurt.

外语教学上面,语言教学在很大程度上应该是文化教育。跨文化交际能力是外语教育的最终目的。

Unit 2物理心理环境与跨文化交际

物理环境与跨文化交际

自然地理环境

?文化和环境的关系,主要表现在自然环境在很大程度上决定了人们的生存方式,生产方式,行为模式及社会规范。不同的地理环境和气候塑造出不同的文化和民族性格。

知者乐水,仁者乐山;知者动,仁者静。

--------《论语》

?古中国:农业文化(大陆文化)

发祥于黄河流域;温带;农业为主的经济

本末有别:农为本,商为末

重本轻末,尚农轻商

靠土为生,导致国家家庭化

发展了“君臣,父子,兄弟,夫妻,朋友”的不平等的社会关系及严格的身份制度。

固守土地,好静

?古希腊:商业文化(海洋文化)

岛国,海洋国家

发展了与家邦制相反的社会组织,建立了民族平等的契约社会

活动在海上,形成好动取向

求变,好奇成为海洋文化的特点

希腊是欧洲文明的摇篮

希腊文明诞生于巴尔干半岛和爱琴海域。与起源于大河流域尽享水土之利的民族相比,这里的自然条件可谓恶劣。

半岛虽不宜农耕,却适种果木,盛产葡萄、橄榄和无花果。葡萄可酿萄萄酒,橄榄可制橄榄油,而葡萄酒和橄榄油绝大部分用来出口。

至古典时代,这种外向型经济达于繁荣。比雷埃夫斯港是这时地中海世界著名的国际商港,同时是环地中海区的商品集散中心,帆樯林立,熙来攘往,不同肤色、语言、国籍的客商云集于此,南腔北调,意趣盎然,构成了一幅生动活跃的经济图景。

这里曾是一个国家政体形式的百花园。聪明睿智的希腊人几乎创设了当代政治学研究的一切形式:贵族制、共和制、民主制、君主制等等,一时宛如百花竞放,争奇斗艳,异彩纷呈。在这个百花园中,曾有这样一种政体吸引着人们的兴趣:每个公民都有选举和被选举权,官位轮流充任,一年一选,且大多任期一届,极少连任。这里不采用代表制,不存在使命制,更容不得世袭制,一切都依公民的意志为转移。这是一种真正的、直接的民主,在历史的发展中,它演化为一种精神。

建筑风格

?我们塑造了建筑物,建筑物也塑造了我们。

----------Winston Churchill

建筑是凝固的文化和历史传统

中国古建筑

?在古代封建血缘,家族的封闭制度下,形成了高墙深院的四合院的特点。

?四合院是有等级的,排他的,身份制,家长制的,偏正分明,主次分别

传统的四合院建筑会使居住者的人际关系倾向于以权威为中心,发展垂直式的人际关系

西方建筑

独立,分明,简约,直接,功能性

心理环境与跨文化交际

?心理环境是指人这一主体对客观环境的知觉,态度,信仰以及如何利用环境等。

?群体和个人领域

不同文化采用不同的方式来调节控制自己的领域。

中国文化习惯于用围墙和篱笆来保护群体或家庭的领域利益;美国人习惯用空间来维护家宅领域。

?中国人以筑墙闻名于世

Eg: 汉字:国,园

成语:众志成城,固若金汤;金城汤池

?石旭初在人民日报上发表文章指出,有人对沪,皖,川,渝三省两市的工业和教育系统的围墙长度做过概算统计,并以此推算,我国在工业企业和学校的围墙长度达到一百多万公里,大概是万里长城的一百五十倍,围墙占地面积二百二十平方公里,相当于两个长沙市的面积。

?中国人习惯用围墙来保护私人领域,本质上讲是对群体隐私的一种保护

?中国人崇尚集体隐私,一家为基础的隐私必须加以保护

eg: 家丑不可外扬

?美国人对空间高度敏感和崇尚

?实用大小不等的空间来调节群体,家宅,单位的隐私

eg: 学校,工厂,住宅都以空间隔离开来,基本没有围墙

unit 3 cultural values

Definition:

价值观念是任何社会或文化中的人们所回避不了的指令,是人们的行为准则,思维方式,处世哲学,演绎推理的模式,评价事物的规范,道德标准。人们在不知不觉中通过交际习得这套价值系统,变成集体无意识,成为他们的信仰,心态,行为和生活诸多方面的评价系统。

五个评价标准(madebyAmericananthropologists,ClydeandFlorenceKluckhohn)

1)人与自然的关系,是天人合一还是天人相分

2)人际关系,使群体取向还是个人取向

3)动与静,是求动还是求静

4)人之天性观,是性本善还是性本恶

5)时间取向

1人与自然的关系Relationship to Nature,是天人合一还是天人相分Nature Controls:Accept fate; life is outside one’s control be

humble

Human Controls: Make life comfortable and convenient;

problems can be solved; be objective

Harmony: Live according to the rhythms of nature; everything has

its own characterbe balanced

中国:宇宙观天人合一oneness

天人合一指人们对自然规律的顺从和对自然的崇拜,人们

将自然中的日夜交替,季节变化与人们的生活与活动周期一致起来,一切处于不断的循环往复之中,力求与自然和谐统一。

对思维方式的影响:在天人合一的思想指导下,中国人在思

想意识和言语观上倾向于求整体,笼统,综合和知觉重直觉。

Eg: 谋事在人,成事在天

天时,地利,人和;天人感应;

西方:天人相分,二者对立

西方哲学家从古代起,就开始认为世界上的万物都是对立,

一分为二的:人与自然,物质与精神,人处于支配改造自然的位

置上。

生活中,如果得不到自己想要的东西,人们会相信这不是天命,而是由于自身的懒惰和缺乏斗争精神,逆来顺受的人遭到唾

弃。

对思维方式的影响:一切为二,对待事物习惯分析的思维方式和重逻辑的思维模式,以及求“精确”的语言观

Eg: 海明威的《老人与海》:“一个人并不是生来要被打败的,一个人可以被毁灭,但不能被打败。(But man is not made for defeat, a man can be destroyed but not defeated.)”

2人际关系,使群体取向还是个人取向(group vs individualism)

Hierarchy: Obey authority; know one’s place; treat others according to their position; look to leaders to know what to think and do.

Group: Respond to what others think and feel; interdependent ; be loyal; look to others in the group to know what to think and do. Individual: Express one’s own feelings and ideas;Be as independent and self-reliant as possible; make one’s own decisions and choices. Personal initiative/professionalism highly valued.

天人合一必然导致群体取向;天人相分必然导致个人取向。

中国人:群体取向

群体取向表现在两个方面:1)群体取向;2)他人取向

群体取向影响下,中国人提倡以家庭,社会和国家利益为重;他人取向是群体取向的延伸,即:做事时首先考虑别人怎么说,

怎么做,重面子,不愿得罪人,万事和为贵,中国文化为无我文化。

群体取向的结果:中国人相互影响,相互合作,“关系”尤为重要。这种取向是的中国人性格内敛,含蓄,好静,惯于忍让。

评价:从积极方面看,中国人重谦虚,谨慎,相互合作,讲礼貌,讲究集体主义,爱国主义;消极后果:群体取向使人缺乏竞争意识,过分看重“关系”。

eg:先天下之忧而忧,后天下之乐而乐

枪打出头鸟

出头的椽子先烂;循规蹈矩;

十八相送

西方人:个人取向,个人主义

个人主义意味着对自由,差异的追求。西方人强调外在的,个人的,权力的,好斗,崇尚竞争;独辟蹊径,标新立异,追求个人享受,放任个性,自由发展,不仅包括物质利益的满足,也包括个人意志,自我的实现。

隐私权是个人主义的产物,在个人主义取向的社会中,被认为是合理,合法的,或人们的最高需求。

eg:godhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves.

Tworoadsdivergedinaw

ood,andItooktheonelesstravelledbyandthathasmadeallthedifference.

3做人与做事,动与静,是求动还是求静(beingvsdoing)中国人:静的文明,顺从自然,求稳不求变,做人优于做事。做好人成了人生最高理想。性格内向,冥想含蓄,省身独慎。

eg:修身养性;道家“无为”,无为而有为,道德是最高报酬。

得道者多助,失道者寡助

西方:做事与“动”紧密相连

重视外向的行动和行为,快速行动,追求效率,向外索取,冒险,竞争,求变,不依靠他人

4人之天性观,是性本善还是性本恶(innatelygoodvsinnatelyevil)

Basically Evil: find evil and fight against it; punish bad behavior

save people from their evil nature. Stress the

ability of people to change for the better. Basically Good:

protect people’s virtue; reward good behavior; find the most virtuous people as models. The direction of moral change is more likely to be from good to bad.

Mixture: Separate good from evil; identify strengths and weaknesses; reward the good and punish the bad

中国:人性本善。

孔子思想:性相近,习相远,仁者爱人

孟子发扬了孔子的性本善说,注重“恻隐之心”,“辞让之心”,“羞恶之心”等与生俱来的善性。

因此,中国传统文化尤其注重内省和人格的修身哲学,“仁”的概念一直占据中心位置。儒家文化强调人们从善性出发,并固守本性其善即可。这就造就了“安分守己”“知足者常乐”“仁者静”的取向。中国文化被称为“善感文化”或“耻感文化”

性本善促使中国人向后看,善的本性回归。孔子主张“克己复礼”

西方:人性本恶

基督教原罪说:人生只有悔罪,才能在基督审判的末日得到解脱。

以原罪为起点的西方文化,为赎罪,人们不断忏悔,努力超越现世,奋起变化,造就了西方人求动,求变的心理。西方文化被

称为“罪感文化”,人生活在世上是有罪的,在上帝面前是有罪的。

对西方人来讲,回归是没有出路的,只有向前超越才有希望。

5时间取向:过去取向还是未来取向(pastorfutureoriented)

中国人:圆式时间观:时间是圆周式的,可以自身复归。

过去取向,传统取向。循规蹈矩是社会规范,崇拜祖宗,敬老尊师,重经验,重年龄。中国人是时间的主人。使用时间是,可以随意支配,节奏慢。

eg:姜还是老的辣;老马识途

西方人:线式时间观。时间好比一条线,单向持续运动。

未来取向,着眼未来,不相信命运,经验不重要,年老无用,时间被看作是向金钱一样的东西。人是时间的奴隶,被时间支配。

eg:Timeison,itiskept,itcanbeborrowed,itcanbeused,itcanbesaved,itcanbespent,itcanbewasted,itcanbelost,itcanbegained,itcanbekil

led,itcanbebudgeted.Onecannotholdbacktheclock.

Unit 4 Cultural Perception

Perception: It is the process by which we become aware of objects, events, and especially people and their behavior through our various senses and involves higher-order cognition in the interpretation of the sensory information.

知觉:知觉是一种人们通过各种感觉来觉察事物、事件、人和人的行为的过程。它是解释感觉信息更为高阶的认知过程。

Stereotypes

Stereotypes are the perceptions or beliefs we hold about groups or individuals based on previously formed opinions and attitudes. It may have negative effects on communication. If a stereotype is very common, people may assume that it is true.

定势:针对目标群体的成员所持有的(过于简单的)正面或反面的判断。人们经常认为定势只含有否定贬义的意思。然而,定势还包括盲目积极方面的判断,例如:认为所有的医生都是聪明机智的。

(1)我们应该如何克服或冲破某些消极的文化定势?

可能出现的文化定势:

a.北方人的脾气都很暴躁。

b.四川人都喜欢吃辛辣的食物。

c.广东人谙于生意之道。

d.上海人都很小气。

e.南方的男人都很细心。

f.西藏的牧民只有在特定的节日才沐浴。

定势对跨文化交际有直接影响。因为我们在交往时对对方的行为预测肯定是以我们对其文化的固定看法为基础的。定势的准确程度与我们对有关的人的行为预测密切相关,即定势越准确,对对方行为的预测越准确,交际就越顺利,定势欠准确,效果就相反。

Prejudice

Prejudice refers to the irrational dislike, suspicion, or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual orientation.

偏见:对于某一特定群体、种族、宗教、或性取向的无端地憎恶和怀疑。例如:对非裔美国人和西班牙裔美国人的报导普遍都是否定的。

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism is the negatively judging aspects of another culture by the standards of one’s own culture. We tend to view our own cultural values and ways of doing things as more real, or as the right and natural values and ways of doing things. The major consequence of the view is our ingroup’s values and ways of doing things are seen as superior to the outgroups’ values and ways of doing things.

当某一民族把自己看成世界的中心时,民族中心主义就产生了。民族中心主义指某个民族把自己当作世界的中心,把本民族的文化当作对待其他民族的参照系,它以自己的文化标准来衡量其他民族的行为,并把自己与其他文化相隔离开来。

Eg: 1. 中国:中华————天下中央之国。

同时将非华夏文化之国称为夷,蛮,戎等

2.美国:美国人从小就受到美国是世界中心的教育。美国的棒球及美式足球比赛通常被称为“世界系列”大赛(world series),冠军通常被称作世界冠军。美国人被称为Americans.

3. 古希腊人,使用野蛮人(barbarikos)来称呼世界上的其他民族。

Racism

Racism is any policy, practice, belief, or attitude that attributes characteristics or status to individuals based on their race.

种族主义/种族偏见

指基于种族把性格特点或地位归因于个人的任一政策、做法、信仰或态度。

Overcoming Intercultural Communication Barriers

Raise awareness

a.Self-awareness

b.Consciousness of one’s values and biases and their effect

c.Necessity of becoming comfortable with differences

d.Sensitivity to circumstances

Obtain knowledge

We can obtain knowledge by reading books, surfing on the internet and communicating with people from different cultures.

Enhance motivation

Master skills

Cultural-general skills

Cultural-specific skills

Unit 5 nonverbal communication

Body Language(身势语)

目光语(eyes contact

Japan: people are not taught to look another in the eyes but at a position around Adam’s apple

Chinese, Mexican & Indonesian:

Lowering their eyes as a sign of deference—to them, too much eye contact is a sign of bad manner.

Arabs: looking directly into they eyes of the person with whom they are talking ----to them direct eye contact shows interest.

Americans: lack of eye contact is lack of honesty.

“Look at me when I talk to you”

“不要相信那些不敢直视你眼睛的人”

姿势(posture)

申舌头(despise; respect; surprise)

点头摇头(eg: p458)

坐姿(eg: p458)

坐和站:“请到我家来坐坐”(eg:p459)

握手:

France & England: the handshaking is light and quick

US: the handshaking is firm, pumping and continued.

Africa, India& Middle East: handshakes are reserved for men.

western countries: handshaking between women and men accompanied by a kiss of the woman’s hand by the man.

手势(gesture

OK (great; money; no value; gay)

V字手势

面部表情(facial expression)

Proxemics(时空行为)

美国人的“流动领域”

阿拉伯人的拥挤

Paralinguistics(副语言或辅助语)

Silence

In west: evidence of shyness, lack of interest, injured feeling

In China: a virtue, a sign of respectability and trustworthiness, respect for age, authority and wisdom.

外表行为

Unit 6中西语言哲学观英汉词汇的文化意蕴对比

西方宗教和哲学的言语观是创世的,旨在创造世界;中国言语观,老子的言语观是出世的,孔子的是入世,旨在治世,达到和合。

中国言辩观

?代表儒家的孔子意图通过道德伦理,内省反思建立和维系一个以等级为基础的和谐社会,人们之间交际的目的不仅仅是交流信息,更重要的是实现和维护和合的社会关系。

老子

?道家代表人物老子,从“无为”宇宙观和“无名”认识论出发,认为社会充满矛盾,而消除矛盾达到和合,就要做到“无为”。他认为宇宙间最纯正的颜色是白色,最纯正的声音是无声,言辩只能造成矛盾对立,应该以不言不辩来认清事物本质。

?“道,可道,非常道” The Tao that can be spoken of is not the eternal Tao

?“信言不美,美言不信;善者不言,言者不善”

?“不争而善辩,不言而善应,不招而自来”

庄子

?庄子继承了老子的“无为”,“无名”论,更加否定言语交流的价值。

?“至言去言”

?“不可见,不可闻,不可言”

孔子

?老庄对语言的态度是完全否定的,与其相比,孔子对语言的态度是积极的,入世的,但孔子对语言的态度是谨慎的,主张慎言,寡言,戒言。

?“君子欲讷于言,而敏于行”

?“言寡尤,行寡悔”

?孔子一方面强调认得品格修养,一方面让人们不要直接运用语言,而要多采取非言语行为,从姿态容貌交流,理解别人意图,察言观色。

西方言辩观

?以个人主义为本位的西方文明,语言是延伸自我和改造他人的工具。语言或言语的功能在于清晰准确而合乎逻辑的说服改造他人,旨在创造而改造世界和社会,因而是创世的。

?古希腊人对语言本身,对言语的力量和作用推崇备至,相信语言与上帝同在,语言就是上帝。

?掌握语言的艺术在古希腊变成了各阶层所必须掌握的学问,从而产生了“修辞学”

(Rhetoric),及劝说和说服别人的学问。

?“修辞学不仅是为某一特定阶层的臣民所专有的学问,乃是人人应掌握的学问”----亚里士多德

英汉词汇的文化意蕴对比

不同民族由于在地里,民俗,宗教及价值观上的差异,在表达同一概念的词汇时,各自的文化会给词汇附加不同的文化联想意义。

? 1. 指示意义相同,联想意义不同

?在不同语言或文化中,同一事物可以引起不同的联想。

?颜色词,

?动物词:龙神圣,至尊,吉祥,真龙天子,龙的传人,龙风呈祥,望子成龙?Dragon evil monster

?猫头鹰不吉利,凶兆,死亡

?Owl “as wise as a owl”

?英国童谣:

?“A wise old owl lived in

?an oak. The more he

?saw, the less he spoke,

?the less he spoke, the more he heard.

?Why can’t we all be like that wise old bird”

?

?公鸡:吉祥,大吉,

?雄鸡报晓

?闻鸡起舞

?Cock 男子生殖器

?狗狼心狗肺狗嘴吐不出象牙

?狗仗人势痛打落水狗

?狗腿子狗眼看人低

?Dog lucky dog

?every dog has its day

?羊三羊开泰

?广东羊城

?

?Ram 1). 未阉割的公羊

?2)猛撞,挤压

?蟋蟀忧伤凄凉,孤独寂寞

?“但闻四壁虫声唧唧,

?如助余之叹息”----欧阳修《秋声赋》

?“独申旦而不寐兮,哀蟋蟀之宵征”

?----宋玉《九辩》

?Cricket as merry as a cricket

?西风萧条,凄凉

?“西风古道瘦马,夕阳西下,断肠人在天涯”

?West wind 希望和力量的象征

?雪莱的《西风颂》

?原因:西风吹其时,英国正是春天来临,万物复苏;而中国则是深秋或隆冬,万物萧瑟,树木凋零

?

? 2. 指示意义相同,联想意义部分相同

?玫瑰爱情

?Rose 1. love 2. under the rose 秘密沉默

?

? 3. 指示意义相同,在一种语言中有丰富的联想意义,在另一种语言中却没有?竹子正值,坚贞,高洁

?“竹死不变洁,花落有余香”

?“常爱凌寒竹,坚贞可喻人”

?Bamboo 无意义

?

? 4. 各自文化中特有的词汇,及文化中的词汇缺项

?

?汉语:客气,阴阳,七经八脉,丹田

?英语:punk, hippie

Unit 7英汉文字认知及句法对比

?汉字----以形写意,形声一体,平面文字

?字母----形不写意,声音文字,线性文字

文字与思维相互影响相互作用

?汉字----中国人形象思维

?字母----西方人抽象思维

?人们对文字的认知活动是以大脑神经为物质基础,无论是对文字的物质外壳,及文字的图像识别,还是对文字的内容,即字义的最终确认,都是以大脑不同部位,不同半球协同活动为基础的,或大

脑某一区域部位专司其职。

汉英句法之文化差异

?形态语和无形态语

汉语----汉藏语系,无形态语,无标记语言

英语----印欧语系,形态语,标记语言

汉语—无标记语

?汉语是缺乏严格意义的形态变化的无标记语言----吕叔湘

?汉语实用非语音化的词序手段表达意义,在表示动作与事物的关系上(名词的性,数,格,动词时态等)几乎完全依赖意合。

?汉字单语音,单语素,一字一音一语素现象普遍,无词尾变化,但文字本身意义丰富,一词多义,同音多意,字和词的顺序稍加变化就会产生新的意义。

?Eg: 花纸,纸花,半斤,斤半,好商量,商量好。

?汉语中词的意蕴丰富,主观性强,句法必须做出让步:

eg: 吃小灶,看医生,饭吃了吗,晒太阳,鸡毛蒜皮说了一大堆,苹果鸭梨买了一大堆。

中国队大败美国队

中国队大胜美国队

英语----标记语

?英语属于印欧语系,形态丰富,客观性强,使得语言具有扎实的形式逻辑基础。

?印欧语系的丰富形态构成了其语法之根本,即英语有各种语法意义的不同种类的语

素和功能语词(如时态,人称,格,数,大小写,冠词),完备的句法很少为语义让步。在很大程度上,只有在语法统筹之下,句子才通顺。

形合与意合

?英语高度形式化,逻辑化,句法结构严谨完备,重形合,轻意合,以动词为核心:SVO or SV

句子必须完备,各个成分很少省略,尤其主语,对标点符号的要求严格。

“下雨了”;“发生了”

?汉语的词语内蕴丰富,基本可以满足语法和语义的基本信息要求。

?汉语注重意合。句子结构多以主谓宾顺序排序,但不像英语一样以谓语动词为中心,而是以词序和语义为中心,不管句子是否完备。也不需要英语那样一定使用连接词去衔接。

?汉语句子是以话题或语义为中心,有若干语义相关但句子结构松散的小句组成。

?汉语句法不必完备,主语和其他成分均可以省略,句子可以无头无尾,但意义完整。

可以说,汉语重意会,重流动,重具象,重虚实。

?枯藤老树昏鸦

小桥流水人家

古道西风瘦马

夕阳西下

断肠人在天涯

?Crows hovering over rugged old trees wreathed with, rotten vine----the day is about done.

Y onder is a tiny bridge over a sparkling stream,

And on the far bank, a pretty little village.

But the traveler has to go down this ancient road,

the west wind moaning,

his bony horse groaning,

trudging towards the sinking sun,

farther and farther away from home.

Unit 9 Intercultural Pragmatics

Speech Acts

?道歉,称呼,请求,

?感谢,拒绝,建议,

?劝告,恭维,警告,

?邀请,告别,批评

称呼语(Addressing

?称呼语”是社会关系中“权势”和“平等”关系的标志

?中国----权势社会

父子有亲,君臣有义,夫妇有别,长幼有序,朋友有信。

中国这样一个以血缘家族社会为基础而发展起来的社会,以表示血缘或亲属关系的名词作为手段称呼是世界上独一无二的。

?西方----平等社会

EG:要么直呼其名,要么:头衔+姓

招呼语(Greeting

?English:

Hi, Hello, How are you, How do you do,

It is nice to meet you, Excuse me…

?Chinese:

你好,您好,吃了吗,你去哪,干嘛去,

你好,辛苦了;一路辛苦了

道别(farewell

?Two phases:

phase one: statement of the departure

phase two: the departure

American farewell

?Among Americans, phase one tend to be delayed. One of the individuals initiates this phase by noting that he or she should depart soon, but no immediate move to depart is actually made. Both continue their conversation for a while longer, this delay may last from a few minutes to as much as an hour. Abrupt moves to depart will occur but with apology.

?An American who intends to depart usually explains that a factor in his or her personal situation compels the departure.

eg: I’ve got to study for that test tomorrow, so I’d better be going.

?Sometimes they excuse themselves because of some factor in the life of their interlocutor.

eg: I know you need to get back to work, so I’m going to go now.

?Phase two:

When phase two arrives, an American visitor goes to the door, the host accompanies the leaver to the door and may briefly exit a short distance beyond it, offering a farewell wave, saying: Good-bye, see you, so long, take care

Chinese Farewell

?Among Chinese, phase one occurs in a very short period of time.

?A Chinese also offers a reason for leaving, the explanation is more often related to the other person’s presumed needs.

?Phase two is typically played out over an expended time, and over an extended space. The two people exit from the door together and continue walking some distance while continuing to converse.

It is common for the host to accompany the guest down several flights of stairs and out of the building before saying the final goodbye.

慢走,不远送,慢点骑,有空再来

Invitation

?句式

美国人常用疑问句化请求来提出邀请

“How about……?”,

“Would you like to …”

(完整word版)跨文化交际教学大纲

《跨文化交际》 课程教学大纲 课程名称:英语教学论 课程类别:专业必修课 考核类别:考试 适用对象:本科 适用专业:英语 总学时、学分:36学时2学分 一、课程教学目的 该课程旨在扩大学生的知识面,对西方文化的不同层面有所了解,以提高学生的交际能力。在传统的外语教学中, 人们往往忽视文化的重要作用, 只注重语言能力的培养而未能顾及交际能力的提高。近年来国内学者认识到外语教学必须引进文化知识的对比,训练学生灵活运用语言知识, 更好地与外国人沟通, 减少和避免误解。 1

二、课程教学要求 该课程教学要求学生提高对文化差异的敏感性, 更有效地与外国人进行交际,为英语专业课程的学习和翻译实践能力的提高奠定基础。 三、先修课程 跨文化交际是英语专业的必修课, 是在完成了精读、泛读、综合英语、写作等基本技能训练后开设的,旨在增强文化差异的敏感性,增强跨文化交际意识,有助于英语专业课程的学习和翻译实践能力的提高。因此,学生先期完成英语听说读写等技能训练基本课程,如《基础英语》、《英国文学选读》等课程。 四、课程教学重、难点 该课程教学重点在于培养学生对英语国家文化的 2

了解及跨文化交际意识, 提高驾驭英语语言的能力, 从而使其能得体地运用语言与操英语的外国人士进行交流。教师的讲授重点是帮助学生认识中西文化的异同,分析文化差异的根源, 帮助学生深化对西方文化的理解。中西文化的差异在表层上很容易识别,但对造成差异的原因却需追根溯源。东西方在历史,思维方式以及哲学等方面的差异则是造成中国学生对西方文化不解的主要原因,也是该课程的难点。 五、课程教学方法(或手段) 教学方法:以课堂讲授为主,适当组织课堂讨论,鼓励学生充分利用课外资源进行探索性、研究性学习。 六、课程教学内容 Unit 1 Communication Across Cultures(4学时) 3

跨文化交际(英文版)

Cross –cultural communication Thesis statement: This paper is mainly talking about the culture differences between several countries. Outline: Chapter 1: Language and culture in communication Chapter2: Culture shock Chapter3: What’s in a name? Chapter4: Social interaction Chapter 5: Roles and relations Chapter6: Non-verbal communication Chapter 7: In other words. Chapter 8: From a primitive Tribe to a Global Village Conclusion Chapter 1: Language and culture in communication There is no denying the fact that out daily lives depend largely on communication, without it we can’t know each other. So, we should come to realize that communication is of great importance. What is communication? In total, communication can be divided into two parts; they are verbal communication and non-verbal communication. However, different people hold different opinions about communication. In general, if there is communication, there must have 4 cases: there are at least two or more people, some contact between communicators, a language shared by communicators, an exchange of information has taken place. I just take the fist one for example. Suppose there is one person, there can’t be communication. Otherwise, he may talk to himself. Communication not just exist in human-beings There are five kinds of communications they are human communication, animal communication, human-animal communication, human machine communication, machine communication. So, Animals and machines can also communicate with each other. For human beings, how can we communicate with each other? Experts say that there are various kinds of communication. Nowadays, there are different kinds of tools for us to communicate .For people we can use telephone and computer to communicate with each other. By them, finally we can receive message. What is social situation? When there are two or more people gather to do a job or an activity, then it creates a social situation. That is to say, an individual working alone can not constitute a social s A social situation may have two definitions. One is given by the community, and the other by the participants. Finally, we should notice that being polite plays a crucial role in

文化差异与跨文化交际章节答案

第一章 1 【单选题】(10分) 中西方文化交流的历史源远流长,历史上有一条连接东西方文明古国的通道被称之为“丝绸之路”。“丝绸之路”的得名是由()提出的。 A. 张骞 B. 汉和帝 C. 汉武帝 正确 查看答案解析 10分 2 【多选题】(10分) 广义上的“丝绸之路”除了包括陆上丝绸之路外,还包括海上丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路由()组成。 D. 北洋航线 正确 查看答案解析 10分 3 【多选题】(10分) “丝绸之路”曾作为连接中西方的重要通道发挥着重要的作用。其发挥的作用主要是指()。 B. 军事作用 正确 查看答案解析

10分 4 【单选题】(10分) 通过“陆上丝绸之路”,于()年粟特人将制造葡萄酒的技术传入中国。 B. 康熙九年 C. 崇祯十六年 D. 元和七年 正确 查看答案解析 10分 5 【单选题】(10分) 汉武帝时期,()为开拓“丝绸之路”立下了汗马功劳,被誉为“中国走向世界第一人”。 A. 卫青 B. 霍去病 D. 司马迁 正确 查看答案解析 10分 6 【多选题】(10分) 鸠摩罗什把佛教从西方引入中国,将大量经书翻译成汉语,为佛教在中国的传播做出了巨大的贡献。他与()和玄奘并称为中国佛教四大译经家。 B. 鉴真 C. 法显 正确 查看答案解析 10分 7 【单选题】(10分) ()17岁时跟随父亲和叔叔历时四年来到中国,与元世祖忽必烈建立了友谊。后由鲁斯蒂谦将其在中国见闻轶事整理并编着成游记,在欧洲广为流传,激起了欧洲人对东方的向往。

A. 查理·马特 C. 利玛窦 D. 阿基米德 正确 查看答案解析 10分 8 【多选题】(10分) 佛教传入中国后对中国文化的影响巨大。中国历史上就曾修建过许多反映佛教文化的石窟,其中敦煌莫高窟与()并称为中国四大石窟。 A. 固原须弥山石窟 正确 查看答案解析 10分 9 【多选题】(10分) 利玛窦不仅将中国文化介绍到了西方,而且帮助中国人打开了视野,使中国人了解到了西方。正是由于他的到来,使中国人第一次接触到了()。 D. 西方哲学 正确答案是:A,B,C 查看答案解析 10 【多选题】(10分) “丝绸之路”加强了东西方的贸易往来。通过“丝绸之路”中国将()运输到东南亚、南亚、东非以及欧洲各国。

(完整word版)大学英语跨文化交际教程课后答案完整版

期末考试范围 ? 1. 阅读理解2篇(20%) ? 2. 选词填空:15个句子(15个备选项,课后的key concepts,概念的词为主。(15%) ?eg: ———the belief that any individual, no matter how poor, can achieve wealth and fame through diligence and virtue. ? 3. 简答题:课后comprehension questions和case study( 课内或者稍微改动的)。(25%) 4. 实用写作:一封信什么的(格式)(10%) 5. 写作:给出某个文化现象观点,运用所学文化差异进行评论 (comment)。(30%) 如: 说给一个关于教育的话题(文化现象),我们要用所学的中 美教育差异进行评论,议论文形式。 价值观,家庭观,社会关系朋友观,饮食观,教育观,时间观等 篇目:Unit1: A B C Unit2 A Unit3 A B Unit5A Unit6A Unit7 A Unit10 B Unit1 A Key concepts reservation: 谦逊的coldness: 冷静的 modesty:谦虚的 humor:幽默的 sportsmanship:运动员精神 Q1、what is a reserved person like? Answer: A reserved person is one who does not talk very much to strangers, does not show much emotion, and seldom gets excited. Q2、what is the character of the Englishmen? Answer: reserved 、humor、modesty、cold、sportsmanship. Q3、what is sportsmanship? Answer: sportsmanship is the ability to practice a sport according to its rules, while also showing generosity to one’s opponent and good temper in defeat. Case study Q、What made the British feel quite unhappy in this situation?

跨文化交际英文案例

Case 1 Girl-ness As a visiting professor in an American university, Zhang Hua was invited to give a lecture to a group of American students. He talked about university students in China. During the question-and-answer period after the lecture, one female student asked a question that surprised Zhang Hua. “When you talked about female students, you referred to them as girls. Why?” “Because they are girls. That’s what they are called,” Zhang Hua tried to answer, but he knew he did not really understand the intent of the question. “ I don’t quite understand your question, I’m afraid.” “In the States, we call ourselves ‘ women’ if we’re old enough to go to the university. Calling us ‘girls’ is insulting.” Do Chinese female college students prefer to be called women? Case 2 Many years ago, a Chinese man showed a photo of his wife to some American visitors. Out of courtesy, they all said,” She is very beautiful.” Also out of courtesy, the man replied with what he would have done in Chinese under the circumstance,” Where! Where!” Quite taken aback, nobody said anything for a moment, until the most ingenious one among the visitors, taking another look at the photo, said, “Oh, everywhere!” What did the Chinese intend to mean by replying with “ Where! Where!”? Case 1 Girl-ness As a visiting professor in an American university, Zhang Hua was invited to give a

跨文化交际

Intercultural communication is a form of global communication. It is used to describe the wide range of communication problems that naturally appear within an organization made up of individuals from different religious, social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds.As a separate notion, it studies situations where people from different cultural backgrounds interact. Aside from language, intercultural communication focuses on social attributes, thought patterns, and the cultures of different groups of people. It also involves understanding the different cultures, languages and customs of people from other countries. Intercultural communication plays a role in social sciences such as anthropology, cultural studies, linguistics psychology and communication studies. Intercultural communication is also referred to as the base for international businesses. There are several cross-cultural service providers around who can assist with the development of intercultural communication skills. Research is a major part of the development of intercultural communication skills. As we all know, there are so many differences between culture of the East and West that I can not list all of their different aspects. I will focus on the differences of diet custom and teaching system. For your better understand , I will set examples of China and America. It is no doubt that it is a tradition to use chopsticks for Chinese. But people in America prefer to forks and knives. This different result is based on different food they are like .Americans choose to eat beefsteak, bread, and salad, while Chinese people choose noodles, pancakes and rice. What is more, the custom of drinking tea in China and drinking coffee in America are stand out particularly .However, there is a trend that the food in both countries has been mixture. For example, the coffee and bread have introduced to China. The famous KFC is very popular at children. The gap of teaching system between China and America is big. Chinese students always complain about their homework. Too much homework has limited the time to exercise and relax. They have to recite many things as to get a high mark. Homework comes the first to them. In my opinion, the study in America is more interesting .Teachers pay attentions t o training students? skills in thinking in realistic life not to emphasis on the importan ce of memories. In a addition, the rate of going to school ,the salary of teaching ,and t he job of graduates are quite different, too. I should say that China government should make great efforts to improve its teaching system. I am also expect to be one day ,the West give more cheers to our country. “Culture is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the me mbers of one category of people from another.” It is inevitable that the cultural difference has impact on business. For example, when a company is having meeting, the word “table” they mention in American Engli sh means to put something on the agenda, but in British English it means to put somet hing off the agenda. This example indicated how the culture affects the business. In Western wedding culture and the first in the West in thinking about the differe

跨文化交际的ppt总结

一、跨文化交际的重要性 跨文化交际的机会是由全球化引起的 交通和通讯系统的发展(缩短旅游时间,电视网络,互联网,国际电影业) 国家间的文化迁移(多元文化主义) 新经济领域(跨国公司) 不断增长的世界人口(有限的自然资源、污染、国际冲突) 二、文化是什么 (一)文化的定义 1、《简明牛津词典》:文化是“艺术和被集体视为人类智慧成就的其他表现形式”。 2、从人类学的角度定义文化:文化是“一个特定时代或民族的风俗、文明和成就”。 3、(霍尔,1983)我们将文化定义为“信仰、习俗、价值观、行为、制度和交流方式的总和,这些都是在 一个可识别的群体中被共享、学习和代代相传的。” 4、1871年爱德华·泰勒爵士的定义(第一次使用这个术语):"这个复杂的整体包括知识,信仰,艺术, 道德,法律,习俗以及人类作为社会成员所获得的其他能力和习惯" 5、Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952) 克罗伯和克拉克洪。 文化由显性和隐性的模式组成,是通过符号获得和传递的行为,构成了人类群体的独特成就,包括在人工制品中的体现;文化的本质核心是由传统的(即历史的派生和选择的)思想,尤其是它们所依附的价值观所组成的;文化系统一方面可以被认为是行动的产物,另一方面可以被认为是进一步行动的制约因素。 6、Porter & Samovar 波特和萨莫瓦尔 “知识、经验、信仰、价值观、态度、意义、等级、宗教、时间观念、角色、空间关系、宇宙观念、物质对象和财产的积累,这些都是一群人通过个人和群体几代人的奋斗过程中获得的。”—《跨文化交际读本》 7、文化的内容“是文学、美术、音乐、哲学、科学这一类的事。”-陈独秀 8、“文化是生活的样法。”“文化,就是吾人生活所依靠的一切。”-梁漱溟 9、“人类在社会历史发展过程中所创造的物质和精神财富的总和,特指精神财富,如文学、艺术、教 育、科学等。”-《现代汉语词典》 (二)文化的基本功能 1、文化使一切都变得容易。为人、事、提供意义——减少生活的混乱;为我们提供结构——适应我们 的世界所必需的技能和规则。 2、亚伯拉罕·马斯洛--文化也可以理解为满足人类需求的一种特殊方式。 生理需求-安全-归宿感-尊重-自我实现 (三)文化的特征 1、文化适应:文化是后天有意或无地习得的。事实上,文化不是天生的感性,而是后天习得的。 2、文化的大部分是无意识的。文化是冰山。 (1)显性的-做事方式。行为、传统、人工制品-建筑物衣服艺术品等。 (2)隐性的-思维方式。信仰、态度、看法、价值观念。 3、文化是可以改变的。有必要认识到文化是动态的而不是静态的。它们在事件的影响下,通过与其他 文化的接触不断地变化和演变。文化通过三种最常见的机制发生变化:创新、传播和文化适应(灾难)。

(完整word版)跨文化交际试题

1.Three international developments have made intercultural contact more pervasive (无处不在), they are .(D ) A. new technology and information system B. changes in the world’s population C. a shift in the world’s economic arena D. A, B and C 2.___C___ has evolved that lets societies share cultural experiences with one another as films are produced and shown around the world. A. Show business B. I.T. C. international film industry D. Mass media 3.__A____ in the United States, because they have been profoundly affected by population and immigration increases, are a primary setting for domestic intercultural contact. A. Schools B. Community C. Workplace D. club 4. It is difficult to find a single definition of human communication because__D____. A. the complex nature of communication B. the issue of intentionality C. the issue of unintentionality D. A, B and C 5. To Reusch and Bateson, communication often takes place __A___. A. without awareness B. consciously C. intentionally D. deliberately 6. Which of the statements of communication is not true? D A. Communication is dynamic https://www.sodocs.net/doc/2c17513540.html,munication is symbolic https://www.sodocs.net/doc/2c17513540.html,munication is Interpretive D. Communication is static 7. Communication has a consequence means that ___D___. A. Communication is irreversible B.Our response to message does not have to be immediate C. The nature of our responses to messages is rooted in our culture D. A, B and C 8. Which of the item is not the basic component of culture? C A. Values B. Emotions C. Personality D. Attitudes 9. We learn our culture not through __D______. A. proverbs B. art C. mass media D. self-taught 10.Although many aspects of culture are subject to change, the _B______ of a culture resists major alterations. A. history B. the deep structure C. background D. tradition 11. ___C___ is at the core of intercultural communication. A. sender B. receiver C. culture D. language 12. Although cultures change through several mechanisms, which of the following item is not the three most common ones.C A. Diffusion B. Acculturation C. Invention D. Innovation 13. One of the most difficult tasks for foreigners in learning a new language is learning the _____A____ and ________ in which they are used. A. different styles, the contexts B. grammar, accent C. different styles, the speech acts D. vocabulary, the pronunciation 14. Language is accompanied by a continuous flow of nonverbal communication, which involves not only ____ but also ____ and _____.B A. the tone, gaze, posture B. the voice, the face, the body C. the pitch, gaze, gesture D. the pace, the distance, touch 15. ___B__ is the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory data in a way that enables us to make sense of our physical and social world. A. Interpretation B. Perception C. Analysis D. Understanding

跨文化交际 英文

Analysis of Deferent V iews on “Filial P iety” Between China and American from Movie Guasha Abstract:“While one’s parents are alive, one should not travel to distant places.”“The gentleman works hard on the basic principles, thereafter comes morality; filial piety is the basic principle of a human being.”These are our Chinese traditional filial piety. But are these standards or rules suitable for every nation? The movie Guasha shows us many about the differences of filial piety between China and American. There are many misunderstanding and coincidence in this movie and those are the cause of the circuitous of the characters’fate. All of these are rooted in the cultural differences between China and American. In this assay, I made the differences of filial piety as the point of entry to analyze the reason why the differences come and their similarity. Key words: Guasha, the culture in china and America, piety, filial piety, object The movie Guasha tells a story that a Chinese couple who lived in American for 8 years took the hero’s father in American after they think they had realized their American dream. But a few days later, their son got ill; the old father used Guasha to treat the little boy for he didn’t know how to read English. The bruises were noticed by the child welfare bureau, and all the rough broke out after that. Finally, they had a universal satisfactory ending. The end of the story is to the satisfaction of all, but a variety of cultural conflict is the apparent. What we see is the initial irreconcilable to accept, understand. Many people will think that Chinese and Western have cultural differences, I think so, but I also think that behind these differences, there are many similarities. The following, I will be on the film to talk something about filial piety plot makes concrete analysis, and explore how cultural differences reflected in the filial piety? Why is it? What are the similarities? But before that, we will first do a general understanding of filial piety. In the ancient clan and tribal society, meaning of "filial piety" is very wide. It refers to the family of the elder respect, love, support and sacrifice. With the family as the basic unit of society and social development in a long time, "filial piety" changes from the family elder respect to parental care, and become an important ethical rule to do with family relations. Today, "filial piety" to living gets more attention. We often say that the parents contribute to our

跨文化交际课件word版

Unit 1 introduction 一.文化 文化是冻结了的人际交流,而交流是流动着的文化----W.B. Pearce, 1994. 背景:长期以来,文化被认为是无处不在,无所不包的人类知识和行为的总体。被笼统地当作“生活方式”,社会生活的一切方面,积淀物,价值观念体系,众多规范,乃至艺术,政治,经济,教育,修养,文学,语言,思维的总和。概括地讲,文化即是人们所思,所言,所为,所觉的总和。在不同的生态或自然环境下,不同的民族创造了自己特有的文化,也被自己的文化所塑造。 It is said that there are at least 150 definitions about culture. “Culture may be defined as what a society does and thinks”(Sapir, 1921) “Culture is man’s medium, there is not one aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by culture. This means personality, how people express themselves, including shows of emotion, the way they think, how they move, how problems are solved, how their cities are planned and laid out, how transportation systems function and are organized, as well as how economic and government systems are put together and fuction.” (E.T. Hall,1959) “A culture is a collection of beliefs, habits, living patterns, and behaviors which are held more or less in common by people who occupy particular geographic areas” (D.Brown, 1978) 文化的特性: 1). 文化是由人们的内隐和外显行为组成的。内隐是文化的规则性;外显表现为人们的 交际行为。 2). 文化不是与生俱来的,而是通过符号被人们习得和传授的知识 3). 历史所衍生及选择的传统观念,尤其是世界观,价值观等文化核心成分,会像电脑 程序一样为人们编制交际行为的内容和方式,因此世界观,价值观被称之为文化实体,民族性格。 4). 文化是群体行为规则的集合,可以被理想的推定出现在某一社会或群体的所有成员 的行为之中。这样,我们就有了诸如中国文化,美国文化,东方文化,西方文化等提法。 5). 文化是一种集体无意识,其产物就是群体或民族中心主义。群体民族中心主义是人 类在交际过程中,无意识的用自己的文化作为解释和评价别人行为的标准。其结果是:自己的行为被无意识的被认为是正确的。因此,群体或民族中心主义会导致交际失误,严重时会带来文化冲突。 E.T. Hall has pointed out : “Culture controls behavior in deep and persisting ways, many of which are outside of awareness and therefore beyond conscious control of the individual.” Therefore, culture can be viewed as an iceberg. Nine-tenths of an iceberg is out of sight (below the water line ). Likewise, nine-tenths of culture is outside of conscious awareness, which is called “deep culture”. 文化的深处时常并不是在典章制度之中,而是在人们洒扫应对的日常起居之间。一举手,一投足,看似那样自然,不加做作,可是事实上却完全没有任意之处,可以说都受着一套从小潜移默化中得来的价值体系所控制。在什么场合下,应当怎样举止,文化早替我们安排好,不必我们临时考虑,犹豫取决。愈是基本的价值,我们就愈是不假思索。行为是最不经意的,也就是最深入的文化表现。(费孝通:美国与美国人) 6). 文化是动态多变的。 二.交际 交际(communicate)来源于拉丁语commonis一词,commonis是common 的意思。很明显,交际这一概念与“共同”(commonness)密切相关,即“共同”或“共享”是交

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