Experimental study on mercury transformation and removal in coal-fired boiler flue gases

Experimental study on mercury transformation and removal in coal-?red boiler ?ue gases

Yunjun Wang a ,Yufeng Duan a ,?,Liguo Yang a ,Changsui Zhao a ,Xianglin Shen a ,Mingyao Zhang a ,Yuqun Zhuo b ,Changhe Chen b

a School of Energy and Environment,Southeast University,Nanjing 210096,PR China b

Department of Thermal Engineering,Tsinghua University,Beijing 100084,PR China

a b s t r a c t

a r t i c l e i n f o Article history:

Received 26July 2008

Received in revised form 20October 2008Accepted 24October 2008Keywords:

Coal-?red power plant Mercury transformation Mercury removal Flue gas

This paper reported mercury speciation and emissions from ?ve coal-?red power stations in China.The standard Ontario Hydro Method (OHM)was used into the ?ue gas mercury sampling before and after fabric ?lter (FF)/electrostatic precipitator (ESP)locations in these coal-?red power stations,and then various mercury speciation such as Hg 0,Hg 2+and Hg P in ?ue gas,was analyzed by using EPA method.The solid samples such as coal,bottom ash and ESP ash,were analyzed by DMA 80based on EPA Method 7473.Through analysis the mercury speciation varied greatly when ?ue gas went through FF/ESP.Of the total mercury in ?ue gas,the concentration of Hg 2+is in the range of 0.11–14.76μg/N m 3before FF/ESP and 0.02–21.20μg/N m 3after FF/ESP;the concentration of Hg 0ranges in 1.18–33.63μg/N m 3before FF/ESP and 0.77–13.57μg/N m 3after FF/ESP,and that of Hg P is in the scope of 0–12.11μg/N m 3before FF/ESP and 0–0.54μg/N m 3after FF/ESP.The proportion of Hg 2+ranges from 4.87%–50.93%before FF/ESP and 2.02%–75.55%after FF/ESP,while that of Hg 0is between 13.81%–94.79%before FF/ESP and 15.69%–98%after FF/ESP,with that of Hg P is in the range of 0%–45.13%before FF/ESP and 0%–11.03%after FF/ESP.The mercury in ?ue gas mainly existed in the forms of Hg 0and Hg 2+.The concentrations of chlorine and sulfur in coal and ?ue gas in ?uence the species of Hg that are formed in the ?ue gas entering air pollution control devices.The concentrations of chlorine,sulfur and mercury in coal and the compositions of ?y ash had signi ?cant effects on mercury emissions.

?2008Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.

1.Introduction

Various kinds of air pollutants emitted from coal-?red power stations,and heavy metals were included as hazardous air pollutants.As one of heavy metals,worldwide mercury emissions from anthro-pogenic sources were currently estimated to about 4000tons/annum.It emitted to the air in the process of combustion.

According to the global mercury mass balancing model [1],34%of the total emissions originated from coal burning.The largest amount of mercury emitted from coal-?red power https://www.sodocs.net/doc/2c10108685.html, EPA submitted a report to USA Congress in 1997,and also pointed out 33%of mercury emissions,induced by human beings,was from coal-?red power stations [2].The average mercury content of Chinese coals was about 0.22mg/kg.From 1978to 1995the total mercury emissions in China reached 2493.8tons with an average increasing rate of 4.8%per year during the process of coal combustion [3].Mercury emissions from coal combustion increased from 202tons in 1995to 257tons in 2003at an average annual rate of 3.0%.Among all of the coal consumption sectors,the mercury emissions growth of the power sectors was the

largest up by 5.9%annually [4].Mercury emissions of coal-?red power plants,occupying 33.6%in China,were the second largest from coal combustion in China [5].

Mercury,emitted from coal-?red power stations,exists in three primary forms,which are namely elemental mercury (Hg 0),gaseous oxidized mercury (Hg 2+)and particle-bound mercury (Hg P ).All of them will do direct or potential harm to human health.Therefore,researching mercury speciation and emissions and removing them from coal-?red power stations are especially important.Different speciation of mercury has different physical and chemical properties.The gaseous oxidized mercury is soluble and has the tendency to associate with particulate matter.Thus,emissions of the gaseous oxidized mercury may be ef ?ciently controlled by air pollution particulate-controlling devices,such as a ?ue gas wet desulphuriza-tion scrubber system,electrostatic precipitator (ESP)or fabric ?lter (FF).Also,particle-bound mercury can be easily collected by dust removal devices,whose resident time is shorter in the atmosphere.By contrast,elemental mercury is extremely volatile and insoluble.Elemental mercury has a high pressure at the typical operating temperatures of air pollution control devices.Therefore,it is dif ?cult to capture elemental mercury by wet ?ue-gas desulphurization (WFGD),?ue-gas desulphurization (FGD)or particle collection device

Fuel Processing Technology 90(2009)643–651

?Corresponding author.Tel.:+862583795652;fax:+862583795652.E-mail address:yfduan@https://www.sodocs.net/doc/2c10108685.html, (Y.

Duan).0378-3820/$–see front matter ?2008Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.doi:

10.1016/j.fuproc.2008.10.013

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Fuel Processing Technology

j o u r n a l h o me p a g e :w w w.e l s ev i e r.c om /l o c a t e /f u p ro c

(PCD)system.Nearly,elemental mercury completely releases into the atmosphere.As a result,it is very important for its removal to analyze the distributions and the factors of mercury speciation in?ue gas.

In order to effectively control the mercury emitted from coal-?red power stations,many countries started to research the distributions and the factors in?uencing on the mercury speciation and its transformation.So some researchers focused on understanding the mechanisms of the mercury oxidization by injection of elemental mercury into solid or gas fuel?ame or simulated?ue gas.Other researchers worked on gas-phase mercury speciation using chemical kinetics or the fate of mercury in the?ue gas during combustion processes.Bench-scale experiments by Yan et al.[6]indicated that Hg0could be oxidized by Cl2in simulated?ue gas and?ue gas constituents(SO2,NO x,and CO)and?y ash impacted on the reaction between Hg0and Cl2.In the presence of?y ash,NO2,HCl,and SO2 resulted in greater levels of Hg oxidation,while NO inhibited Hg oxidation[7].The effect of coal chlorine can also been discussed in the plants that use selective catalytic reduction(SCR)units for NO x control.In general,the oxidation was in?uenced by the presence of chlorine.In the bench and?eld tests,signi?cant oxidation(65–91%) has been observed for bituminous coal-?red units.However,for the low-chlorine sub-bituminous coal-burning units,little catalytic oxidation has been observed[8,9].Galbreath et al.[10]studied the mercury transformations of coal combustion?ue gas in42-MJ/h combustion system.The results showed that mercury chlorination, catalysis of mercury oxidation by Al2O3(s)and/or TiO2(s),and calcium-rich(25.0wt.%CaO)?y ash from subbituminous coal had a great effect on mercury speciation.Helble[11]conducted the research to observe the harmful microelement distribution in gasi?cation process.Eswaran and Stenger[12]studied mercury conversion in selective catalytic reduction catalysts,which was carried out in a pilot-scale system under the following conditions:a temperature of371°C, space velocities of4000h?1,and a?ue gas consisting of N2,CO2,SO2, and NO.A maximum of70%Hg0oxidation was observed with HCl in the?ue gas,at the maximum tested concentrations of35ppm.In recent years,China have commenced on the related researches on the trace element characteristics and distribution in the coal-?red?ue gas.Zhou et al.[13]investigated mercury speciation and transforma-tion in the post combustion condition and the gas-phase interactions between?ue-gas constituents and mercury in the bench-scale experiment.Yang et al.[14]researched the mercury speciation and distribution in a selected220MW pulverized-coal boiler system.Chen et al.[15]studied that mercury could be oxidized while the?ue gas passed through ESP/FF.This paper reported that the?eld measure-ment results of mercury based on the US-EPA recommended Ontario Hydro Method(OHM),which was carried out in?ve pulverized-coal boiler systems,and the characteristics of mercury transformation and removal by ESP/FF were obtained.

2.Experimental section

2.1.Sampling

The Ontario Hydro Method(OHM)was used to take the?ue gas samples,which was the standard method of measuring and speciating mercury in?ue gas.OHM has two possible con?gurations based on EPA Methods5and17out-of-stack?ltration and in-stack?ltration, respectively.The EPA Method17con?guration was used at the sampling point after the electrostatic precipitator.Due to the high amount of?y ash immediately before the ESP region,a modi?ed sampling train(EPA Method5)with both in-stack and out-of-stack ?ltration was used.In order to collect the representative samples,the isokinetic sampling was conducted to collect suf?cient particulate matters and?ue gas.Sampling gas went through a probe/?lter system maintained at120°C or the?ue gas temperature.Then the sample ?owed through a series of impingers,which immerged into an ice bath.Particle-bound mercury was collected in the front tip of the sampling probe.The?rst three impingers containing1N potassium chloride (KCl)solution were connected to absorb oxidized mercury(Hg2+).The fourth impinger containing acidi?ed hydrogen peroxide(H2O2)was used to absorb elemental mercury,and elemental mercury was mainly captured in the?fth,sixth and seventh impingers which contained the solutions of acidi?ed potassium permanganate(KMnO4).In addition, the eighth impinger containing silica gel was provided to ensure that the?ue gas was thoroughly dried-up before it left the impinger train.

2.2.Analysis

The samples,taken from?ue gas,were immediately recovered and digested using Ontario Hydro Method.The OHM solutions were analyzed using a Leeman Labs Hydra AA.The Hydra AA is a cold vapor atomic absorption(CVAA)instrument dedicated to mercury analysis. It has a detection limit of1ppt.According to EPA Method7473,the solid samples were analyzed by Milestone DMA80.

2.3.Testing locations

The results discussed in this paper were obtained from?ve selected power stations with pulverized coal-?red boiler systems in China.These boilers in commercial plants were operated normally during testing.Table1listed some information of?ve coal-?red power plants.The boiler loads ranged from50MW to600MW,and it could basically represent the overall structure of the current coal-?red power plants.Five coal-?red power stations were installed with dust-removing equipment(FF/ESP),and were tested at full capacity or close to full-load operating condition.A diagram of the boiler was shown in Fig.1.The mercury concentration in the?ue gas was measured at two locations,namely before the fabric?lter(FF)or electrostatic precipitator(ESP),and after the FF or ESP in the duct leading to the stack.OHM was used to measure the mercury concentration at both locations.In order to get the samples accurately,the coal samples were collected in the air-coal powder pneumatic conveying duct immediately before burners.The bottom ash was sampled on belt of the slag-discharging machine,and the?ue gas samples used the OHM system before and after FF/ESP respectively at the same time.The?y ashes in the FF/ESP were drawn by a vacuum pump.

3.Results and discussion

3.1.Data analysis

Several studies suggested that many different factors may in?uence mercury speciation and emissions.Mercury speciation and emissions in coal-?red?ue gas from the power stations are strongly dependent on the coal types(e.g.,bituminous,sub-bituminous or lignite),the operating conditions of the combustion system(in terms of unburned carbon in?y ash),and the temperature and residence time in particulate control device et al.This study researched several factors in?uencing on mercury speciation and distribution in coal-?red?ue gas.Table2showed the ultimate and proximate analyses and trace element contents in coal.The content of mercury in coal is within0.01–0.25mg/kg,which is in the range of0.02–1.0mg/kg[16].

Table1

Information of?ve coal-?red power plants.

Item MW The system of power plant Fuel Load(%)

Plant150PC+FF Zhunger bituminous100 Plant2200PC+FF Zhunger bituminous100 Plant3220PC+ESP Shenhua bituminous100 Plant4600PC+ESP Zhunger bituminous90 Plant5600PC+ESP+WFGD Shenhua bituminous90

644Y.Wang et al./Fuel Processing Technology90(2009)643–651

Fig.2showed the mercury speciation concentrations,which were measured in the ?ue gas before and after FF/ESP.The content of Hg 0/Hg 2+was far larger than that of Hg P in pulverized-coal boiler ?ue gas.The content of divalent mercury was more than elemental mercury in the FF outlet ?ue gas of Plants 1and 2.However,the content of elemental mercury was higher than divalent mercury in the ESP outlet ?ue gas of Plants 3,4and 5.The share of elemental mercury in ?ue gas ranged from 13%to 98%,and the divalent mercury was in the range of 2%–80%.Prestbo [17]measured mercury concentrations in coal combustion gas of 14coal-?red plants,and it indicated that the shares of elemental mercury and divalent mercury in ?ue gas were in the range of 6%–60%and 40%–94%,respectively.Various forms of mercury concentration in the ?ue gas from ?ve power stations were accorded with Prestbo's conclusions.From Fig.2,it was seen clearly that Hg P in FF inlet of Power plant 1was exceptionally higher;the reason might be that the unburned carbon in the FF ?y ash of power plant 1was the highest,and it could adsorb the mercury in ?ue gas effectively.However,Hg P was very low in other places,and there was no Hg P detected before and after WFGD.The reason was that there was little ?y ash in the ?lter cylinder.So thanks to OHM sampling,there was error in the measurement.3.2.Mercury speciation

3.2.1.Effect of chlorine in coal

Chlorine in coal plays a primary role in mercury oxidation,which emits into ?ue gas at high temperatures.With the temperature and chlorine in ?ue gas increasing,furthermore the oxidized mercury will be growing up.The reason may be that chlorine is formed atomic chlorine at high temperatures,which has quick reaction with mercury.And the gas –solid (heterogeneous)oxidations involve surface in mercury oxidation and subsequent binding with a chlorinated surface.Mercury chlorination,HgCl 2(g),was generally considered to be one of

the dominant mercury transformation mechanisms in coal combus-tion ?ue gas,even though HgCl 2(g)has never been directly measured.The ratio of oxidized mercury to total mercury in ?ue gas was affected by chlorine in coals (Fig.3).Liu et al.[18]provided some insight into mercury emissions from high-chlorine coal-?red FBC systems,and found out that bituminous coals had the highest chlorine concentra-tions in the range of 500–1300mg/kg.At the ?rst air pollution control device (APCD)inlet,the amount of Hg 2+valuing from 70%to 88%in bituminous coals was the highest in the ?ue gas from these coals.However,lignite had some of the lowest chlorine concentrations,below detection limit to 60mg/kg.Flue gas from the combustion of lignite coal contained a corresponding low percentage of Hg 2+.3.2.2.Effects of HCl and Cl 2in ?ue gas

Figs.4and 5were shown that chlorine was mainly in the form of HCl in the coal-?red ?ue gases.HCl was much more than Cl 2in ?ue gas.HCl played an important role in mercury oxidation,as shown in Fig.4.With HCl increasing,the oxidized Hg increased.It was the most important species affecting mercury oxidation since the major oxidized mercury species in coal-?red ?ue gas was HgCl 2.HCl had a positive impact on increasing Hg 2+in the bituminous coal-burning ?ue gas in this study.The results were consistent with the former researches [19].Cl 2also had an important effect on mercury oxidation in Fig.5,although it had a very small proportion.There was a

positive

Fig.1.Sampling locations in the PC boiler with FF/ESP system.

Table 2

The ultimate and proximate analyses in coal.Item C ad H ad N ad O ad S ad Cl ad Hg ad W ad A ad V ad FC ad wt.%wt.%wt.%wt.%wt.%mg/kg mg/kg

wt.%wt.%wt.%wt.%Plant 147.58 3.7 1.2410.970.743050.244 1.8833.8926.1138.13Plant 251.55 3.62 1.3110.280.812880.188 3.5428.928.239.37Plant 368.25 4.54 1.369.840.371540.0118.057.5930.8253.55Plant 446.01 3.09 1.219.580.521980.209 3.1836.4124.4735.95Plant 5

52.66

3.83

1.91

8.43

0.51

510

0.05

1.83

30.83

28.7

38.64

Fig.2.The content of mercury before and after FF/ESP in ?ve coal-?red power plants.

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effect on oxidized mercury due to its concentration.Experiments and kinetic calculations also indicate that homogeneous chlorination reactions may be greatly affected by the rapid quench rates experienced in a coal-?red boiler and by related changes in chlorine species,including Cl 2and super-equilibrium concentrations of Cl [19,20].Niksa et al.[20]identi ?ed the predominant reactions to be the ?rst,which was,the oxidation of Hg 0by atomic Cl yielded labile HgCl,followed by the oxidation of HgCl by Cl 2to produce HgCl 2with associated regeneration of atomic Cl.In this chlorine recycle process,the concentrations of both atomic Cl and Cl 2were important.Equilibrium calculations conducted for mercury at stack gas conditions indicate that the oxidized form is thermodynamically stable.Chlorine in ?ue gas is a very important constituent for mercury oxidation,and mercury chloride (HgCl 2)is reported as the most prominent form of oxidized mercury.Hall [21]researched various compositions of coal-?red ?ue gas at 20–900°C,and found out that Hg 0(g)could react with HCl or Cl 2rapidly.Kellie et al.[22]concluded that the divalent mercury increased with the increasing of HCl in ?ue gas.Agarwal and Stenger [23]investigated effects of H 2O,SO 2,and NO on homogeneous Hg oxidation by Cl 2,and found that chlorine gas (Cl 2)oxidized Hg effectively.In all these experiments,Cl 2was intentionally added into a ?ue gas stream and the percent of Hg 0oxidation was observed.In other experiments,Agarwal et al.[24]investigated Hg 0oxidation by chlorine species in the temperature range of approximately 120–550°C.Two tests showed that Cl 2became less effective in oxidizing Hg 0at higher temperatures,but more than 50%Hg 0was oxidized,and mercury oxidation increased with the temperature decreasing.

The reaction mechanism may be as follows [25]:Hg 0

eg TtHCl eg T→HgCl eg TtH HCl eg T→Cl eg TtH Hg 0eg TtCl eg T→HgCl eg THgCl eg TtHCl eg T→HgCl 2eg TtH Hg 0eg TtCl 2eg T→HgCl 2eg ;s THg 0eg TtCl 2eg T→HgCl eg TtCl eg THgCl eg TtCl eg T→HgCl 2eg T

3.2.3.Effect of NO x in ?ue gas

In ?ue gas,NO x also in ?uenced the mercury speciation distribu-tion,as shown in Fig.6.Having some catalytic effect and making the ?ue gas oxidized,NO x might cause partially elemental mercury to be oxidized.Thus,the higher the content of NO x ,the higher the ratio of

oxidized mercury.NO was predicted to either promote or inhibit oxidation,depending on its concentration.Higher quench rates increased mercury oxidation in the presence of NO,whereas faster quenching decreased mercury oxidation without NO [20].In the presence of NO 2,Hg 0was catalytically oxidized on the surface to form the nonvolatile nitrate Hg(NO 3)2possibly,which was bound to basic sites on the carbon.Capture continued until the binding sites were used up and breakthrough occurred [26].Hall et al.[27]studied the homogeneous reaction between NO 2and Hg 0.A small but signi ?cant (16.7%)oxidation of Hg 0was observed at 340°C when the NO 2concentration was 400ppm.The oxidation of mercury increased up to 30%with increasing the NO 2concentration to 1000ppm.Eswaran also investigated the removal of mercury by using zeolite [28].In the examination,?ue gas was composed of N 2,O 2and CO 2and the content of elemental mercury was 15μg/m 3.When there was NO in the simulative ?ue gas,the content of elemental mercury reduced to 3μg/m 3sharply.It indicated that NO could boost the mercury oxidation.Based on the bench-scale tests,there was a signi ?cant interaction between NO x and the ?y ash generated from an eastern bituminous coal burning,which greatly impacted mercury speciation.The concentration of the added Hg 0measured as Hg 2+was greater than 25%when the NO x was part of simulated ?ue gas passing through the ?y ash [29].Carey et al.[30]investigated the adsorption by several different sorbents using both elemental mercury and mercuric chloride under simulated ?ue gas conditions in the bench-scale and ?xed-bed experiment.The gas concentration of NO x was much lower at Site 1than that at Site 2.In addition,Site 2was believed to have a higher ratio NO 2/NO in the ?ue gas.This ratio affected the measured adsorption capacity.The total mercury concentration at the two sites varied from 10–30μg/N m 3,with 47%of the mercury being oxidized at Site 1versus 65%at Site 2.

The reaction mechanism may be as follows [13]:NO eg TtO 2→NO 2eg TtO Hg 0

eg TtO →HgO eg T

Hg 0eg TtNO 2→HgO eg ;s TtNO eg T

3.2.

4.Effect of sulfur in coal

Measurements in ?ve Chinese power plants showed that Hg 2+/Hg T increased with coal S increasing (Fig.7).Frandsen put forward that S and Cl could oxide the elemental mercury [31].The concentration of SO 2was an important factor in mercury oxidation;furthermore,it concealed the effect of Cl.The model of Frandsen was the most comprehensive,based on the number of elements and mercury species considered.The modeling results predicted that,at low temperatures in conventional coal combustion systems,in

the

Fig.3.Hg 2+vs.chlorine content in coal.

646Y.Wang et al./Fuel Processing Technology 90(2009)643–651

absence of chlorine HgSO 4(s)was the stable form of mercury.The model also predicted that when the temperature of ?ue gas was more than 700K,the divalent mercury was mainly HgCl 2.As the tem-perature of ?ue gas was less than 590K,the divalent mercury was mainly HgSO 4.Kellie et al.[22]provided sight into the factors,which affected mercury speciation in a 100-MW coal-?red boiler with low-NO x burners.Hg 0decreased as SO 2in the ?ue gas increased in the measurement.In contrast,Hg 0was more responsive to SO 2levels in the ?ue gas than to the coal sulfur content.

Equilibrium reactions proposed by Frandsen et al.were shown as follows:

Hg 0

eg Tt1=2O 2eg T→HgO eg T

HgO eg Tt2HCl eg T→HgCl 2eg TtH 2O eg THgO eg TtSO 2eg Tt1=2O 2eg T→HgSO 4es THgO eg T→HgO es T

HgCl 2eg TtSO 2eg TtO 2eg T→HgSO 4es TtCl 2eg T

3.2.5.Effect of SO 2in ?ue gas

As shown in Fig.8,there was the relationship between oxidized mercury and SO 2.The results showed that both the SO 2concentration in ?ue gas and sulfur content in coal had a positive activity in oxidizing mercury [32].It was well established that adsorption of SO 2occurred

on the activated carbon surface and subsequent oxidation with O 2led to the formation of adsorbed-SO 3.The reaction of adsorbed-SO 3and water vapor led to the formation of adsorbed-H 2SO 4on the activated carbon surface [33,34].Hg 0could react with O 2to form HgO which could then react with the adsorbed-SO 2to produce HgSO 4[35].

However,some other researchers held that some of the catalytic sites were converted to a sulfate form in the presence of SO 2where Hg (NO 3)2was no longer formed.Mercury was oxidized on the surface with NO 2acting as the oxidizing agent,but the product formed was a labile sulfur compound.The bisulfate in turn reacted with NO 3?to form a stable but volatile acidic form of the mercuric nitrate [32].3.3.Mercury removal by FF/ESP

3.3.1.Mercury in coal

Mercury emissions factor (EF)represents the total amount of mercury emission from coal combustion.According to the mercury concentration tests in nine coal-?red plants in 1996by US DOE,the results showed that mercury emissions factor ranged from 1.9–22lb/1012Btu (0.82–9.46g/1012J)[36].The mercury emission factor in this paper referred to University of North Dakota's report,but international units were adopted and de ?ned as follows:

Mercury emissions factor g =J eT?

Mercury emissions to atmosphere g =h eTCoal in boiler g =h eT×Coal low heat value J =g eT

Due to the mercury control technology,burning low-S coal is a popular method of reducing S emissions.Likewise,burning

low-Hg

Fig.4.Hg 2+vs.HCl in ?ue

gas.

Fig.5.Hg 2+vs.Cl 2in ?ue gas.

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coal is a likely method of reducing Hg emissions.Fig.9showed that Hg emissions from ?ve Chinese coal-?red power plants increased with the Hg content of the coal increasing,and the results showed that about 75%of mercury in coal was emitted to the air and 25%of mercury in coal was captured by FF/ESP.Kolker et al.[37]studied that Hg emissions from many American coal-?red power plants varied systematically according to the Hg content of the coal,and the best-?t line indicated that for conventional coal-?red plants,64%of coal Hg was emitted to the atmosphere and 36%was captured.

3.3.2.Chlorine

The halogen content in coal affects mercury oxidation in ?ue gas by homogeneous,heterogeneous and catalytic pathways.Chlorine is the most crucial halogen in combustion systems as far as mercury chemistry is concerned.Mercury removal increased with the content of chlorine increasing (Fig.10).It is generally acknowledged that the primary product of Hg oxidation in ?ue gas is believed to be HgCl 2.Thermodynamic equilibrium calculations performed by Frandsen et al.predicted that all gas-phase mercury in a coal combustion ?ue gas should exist as mercuric chloride (HgCl 2)at temperatures below 450°C [31].The gas-phase transformation pathway involved the oxidation of Hg 0by atomic Cl.The concentration of Cl depended on components of ?ue gas such as O 2,H 2O,hydrocarbons,Cl compounds,and S compounds.Higher concentration of chlorine within the ?ue gas stream resulted in higher mercury oxidation,where Hg 2+was the dominant species form.Senior et al.researched that the cooling rate in

the ?ue gas strongly in ?uenced homogeneous oxidation of Hg 0[18].High cooling rates of ?ue gas between the air preheater inlet and air pollution control device inlet limited reaction rates associated with homogeneous oxidation reactions.

3.3.3.Sulfur

Empirical equations,derived from measurements in ?ve China power plants,showed mercury removal increased with coal S increasing (Fig.11).Morimoto et al.reported that adsorption of SO 2occurred on the activated carbon surface and subsequent oxidation with O 2led to the formation of adsorbed-SO 3[38].Norton et al.[7]studied heterogeneous oxidation of mercury in simulated post combustion conditions.In the presence of ?y ash mercury oxidation mechanisms were very complex.Although ?y ash played a vital role in mercury oxidation,the ?ue gas compositions were more important than the ash compositions and the sources of the ?y ash.The SO 2promoted mercury oxidation,with NO 2being the most important factor.Hutson et al.[39]have recently used X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS)and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)to evaluate mercury binding mechanism on conventional (non-haloge-nated)and chlorinated activated carbon sorbents.In this work the appearance of XAS and XPS for both the conventional and the pre-chlorinated Cl sorbents suggested that some mercury may have been bound to sulfate species that were incorporated onto the carbon from SO 2in the ?ue gas

mixture.

Fig.6.Hg 2+vs.NO x in ?ue

gas.

Fig.7.Hg 2+vs.sulfur content in

coal.

Fig.8.Hg 2+vs.SO 2in ?ue

gas.

Fig.9.Mercury emissions vs.Hg content in coal.

648Y.Wang et al./Fuel Processing Technology 90(2009)643–651

3.3.

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/2c10108685.html,positions of ?y ash

The carbon content of ?y ash in plant 1was larger than in plant 2,and studies showed that activated carbon was the most effective adsorbent for mercury.Therefore,the residual carbon in ?y ash on the removal of mercury was very favorable.The residual carbon content in FF/ESP ?y ash is higher,and the removal ef ?ciency will be higher (Fig.12)[40].Unburned carbon in ?y ash has been shown to be an important factor in mercury capture by FF/ESP.Unburned carbon in ?y ash had higher Hg adsorption capacity.The surface area of sorbents had a positive correlation with Hg adsorption capacity.Carbon –oxygen radicles C f O on unburnt carbon surface were bene ?cial to oxidation and chemical adsorption of Hg [41].It was obtained that the porous structure and huge surface area of the unburned carbon could bene ?t the Hg adsorption in ?ue gas.Unburned carbon in ESP ?y ash of plant 3was higher;so much Hg 2+was adsorbed by ESP ?y ash.Senior et al.[42]carried out the experiments on the relationship between loss-on-ignition and mercury content in FF/ESP ?y ash and found that the removal ef ?ciency also increased with unburned carbon increasing.Gale et al.[43]investigated the correlation between ?ue-gas parameters and mercury oxidation and capture across a pilot-scale FF/ESP in full-scale boilers.The mercury oxidation increased with the increase of UBC in the ?y ash.UBC was the dominant parameter affecting the ?ue-gas Hg-oxidation state.In other tests,hydrated-lime injected into the baghouse increased Hg-removal from 25%to nearly 80%.They proposed an empirical quadratic model,derived from response-surface concepts,which was used to record

and describe the data correlation of mercury removal with CaO and C concentrations in the ?ue gas:

Hg Removal k eT=b 0+b 1C C +b 2C Cao +b 3C 2

C +b 4C 2

Cao +b 5C C C Cao where C C and C CaO represent the concentration of C and CaO respectively in the ?ue gas (lb/MMacf).

Several researchers have investigated the possibility of using the unburned carbon of ?y ash to instead of activated carbon.In bench-scale experiments,?y ashes containing between 2%and 35%UBC could adsorb signi ?cant amounts of mercury.The amount of mercury adsorbed generally increased with surface area of the ash,but was also in ?uenced by the particle size and porosity [44].

Researches indicated that other components of ?y ash (such as CaO [45],Fe 2O 3[46]etc.)could also adsorb mercury.The adsorption performance of calcium-based sorbents was worse in the absence of SO 2including lime,hydrated lime,and a mixture of ?y ash and hydrated lime,but the Hg capture ef ?ciency enhanced from about 10%to 40%in the presence of SO 2,and the adsorption capacity was increased in 30min of exposure of sorbents to ?ue gas,and it was advantageous at higher temperatures.The observed higher captures at higher temperatures supported the chemisorptions theory of Hg 0capture [47].Calcium-based sorbents have been shown to have mercury binding capacity in the presence of SO 2.It was thought that the calcium-based sorbents ?rst capture SO 2,and then form strongly acidic sites on the surface of the sorbent.These acidic sites were bene ?t for mercury oxidation [48].Laboratory studies were conducted to develop an elemental mercury (Hg 0)removal process using iron-based sorbents for coal-derived ?ue gas.The Hg 0removal experiments were carried out in a laboratory-scale ?xed-bed reactor at 80°C

using

Fig.10.Mercury removal vs.chlorine content in

coal.

Fig.11.Mercury removal vs.sulfur content in

coal.

Fig.12.Mercury in ?y ash vs.unburned carbon.

Table 3

Summary of ?y ash composition collected in ?ue gas before ESP/FF.Oxides share Plant 1Plant 2Plant 3Plant 4Plant 5SiO 245.3949.5341.7648.4644.12Al 2O 342.3842.5114.4939.9724.93TiO 2 1.34 1.950.79 2.03 1.4Fe 2O 3 2.35 2.2911.08 2.76 6.89CaO 2.89 2.1722.85 3.5913.26MgO 0.310.28 1.970.72 1.35Na 2O ND 0.12 1.180.160.95K 2O 0.420.33 1.140.64 1.15UBC 2.87 1.13 2.590.9 1.69A/B

14.9318.11 1.4911.49 2.99Hg/(A/B)

0.016

0.010

0.007

0.018

0.017

UBC —Unburned carbon,A=SiO 2+Al 2O 3+TiO 2,B=Fe 2O 3+CaO+MgO+Na 2O+K 2O,ND:not detectable.

649

Y.Wang et al./Fuel Processing Technology 90(2009)643–651

simulated?ue gas with a composition of Hg0(4.8ppb),H2S (400ppm),CO(30%),H2(20%),H2O(8%),and N2(balance gas)at 80°C.More than50%Hg0could be removed by iron oxide(Fe2O3)in the absence of HCl within4hours[49].

The ratio of acid to alkali also had an effect on mercury removal in Table3.The ratio of mercury to A/B was de?ned as the evaluation criteria.Because Hg/(A/B)of Plant1was more than that of Plant2,the removal ef?ciency of plant1was higher.In addition,when the ratio of Hg to(A/B)was larger,in other words,alkaline oxide contents in?y ash were larger,?y ash was able to adsorb more gaseous mercury as speci?ed above in plant4and5.However,residual carbon in?y ash of plant4was the least compared with others.Therefore,it can conclude that the adsorption behavior and mechanism of?y ash for mercury are very complex,and multiple factors have different in?uences on mercury adsorption by?y ash.

4.Conclusions

The mercury contents of consumed coal in the?ve power stations examined was measured,and the range of its contents in coal was 0.01–0.25mg/kg.

The mercury speciation varies greatly when?ue gas goes through FF/ESP.Of the total mercury in?ue gas,the proportion of Hg2+ranges from4.87%–50.93%before ESP and2.02%–75.55%after ESP,while that of the Hg0is in the range of13.81%–94.79%before ESP and15.69%–98% after ESP,and that of the Hg P is in0%–45.13%before ESP and0%–11.03% after ESP.Coal quality,notable Cl and S contents,and the combustion characteristics of the coal all in?uence Hg speciation in?ue gas entering air pollution control devices.Elemental Hg is dif?cult to remove from the gas phase,but particulate bound Hg forms after post-combustion can be more readily captured in FF/ESP.The contents of chlorine and sulfur in coal have a positive correlation with the formation of oxidized mercury.The contents of chlorine,sulfur and mercury in coal have effects on mercury emissions.The?ue gas components have an important in?uence on the mercury speciation. With the NO x,SO2,HCl and Cl2contents increasing,the proportion of oxidized mercury increases.

The same dust removal equipment has higher ef?ciency of mercury removal,which works on different coal-?red power plants. The reason may be that the contents of unburned carbon and alkaline metal oxides et al are different in the removed ashes from the dust removal equipment of different power plants.The mercury removal ef?ciency by FF/ESP is related not only with the adsorption of mercury by?y ash particles,but also with many other factors,such as the carbon content of?y ash and?ue gas compositions.The chlorine and sulfur contents in coal have an important impact on mercury removal by FF or ESP.

Acknowledgements

This sub-project was joint-funded by the State Basic Research Development Program(973Plan)of China(No.2002CB211604& 2006CB200300)and the Developing Plan of the Ministry of Education of China(985-I).The authors are grateful to acknowledge Suli Meng and Zhijun Huang for assistance with revision of the paper. References

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《葛底斯堡演讲》三个中文译本的对比分析

《葛底斯堡演讲》三个中文译本的对比分析 葛底斯堡演讲是林肯于19世纪发表的一次演讲,该演讲总长度约3分钟。然而该演讲结构严谨,富有浓郁的感染力和号召力,即便历经两个世纪仍为人们津津乐道,成为美国历史上最有传奇色彩和最富有影响力的演讲之一。本文通过对《葛底斯堡演讲》的三个译本进行比较分析,从而更进一步加深对该演讲的理解。 标签：葛底斯堡演讲,翻译对比分析 葛底斯堡演讲是美国历史上最为人们所熟知的演讲之一。1863年11月19日下午,林肯在葛底斯堡国家烈士公墓的落成仪式上发表献词。该公墓是用以掩埋并缅怀4个半月前在葛底斯堡战役中牺牲的烈士。 林肯是当天的第二位演讲者,经过废寝忘食地精心准备,该演讲语言庄严凝练,内容激昂奋进。在不足三分钟的演讲里,林肯通过引用了美国独立宣言中所倡导的人权平等,赋予了美国内战全新的内涵,内战并不仅是为了盟军而战,更是为了“自由的新生(anewbirthoffreedom)”而战,并号召人们不要让鲜血白流,要继续逝者未竞的事业。林肯的《葛底斯堡演讲》成功地征服了人们,历经多年仍被推崇为举世闻名的演说典范。 一、葛底斯堡演说的创作背景 1.葛底斯堡演说的创作背景 1863年7月1日葛底斯堡战役打响了。战火持续了三天,战况无比惨烈,16万多名士兵在该战役中失去了生命。这场战役后来成为了美国南北战争的一个转折点。而对于这个位于宾夕法尼亚州,人口仅2400人的葛底斯堡小镇,这场战争也带来了巨大的影响——战争遗留下来的士兵尸体多达7500具,战马的尸体几千具,在7月闷热潮湿的空气里,腐化在迅速的蔓延。 能让逝者尽快入土为安,成为该小镇几千户居民的当务之急。小镇本打算购买一片土地用以兴建公墓掩埋战死的士兵,然后再向家属索要丧葬费。然而当地一位富有的律师威尔斯(DavidWills)提出了反对意见,并立即写信给宾夕法尼亚州的州长,提议由他本人出资资助该公墓的兴建,该请求获得了批准。 威尔斯本打算在10月23日邀请当时哈佛大学的校长爱德华(EdwardEverett)来发表献词。爱德华是当时一名享有盛誉的著名演讲者。爱德华回信告知威尔斯,说他无法在那么短的时间之内准备好演讲,并要求延期。因此,威尔斯便将公墓落成仪式延期至该年的11月19日。 相比较威尔斯对爱德华的盛情邀请,林肯接到的邀请显然就怠慢很多了。首先,林肯是在公墓落成仪式前17天才收到邀请。根据十九世纪的标准,仅提前17天才邀请总统参加某一项活动是极其仓促的。而威尔斯的邀请信也充满了怠慢,

译文对比分析

话说宝玉在林黛玉房中说"耗子精"，宝钗撞来，讽刺宝玉元宵不知"绿蜡"之典，三人正在房中互相讥刺取笑。 杨宪益：Pao-yu，as we saw, was in Tai-yu?s room telling her the story about the rat spirits when Pao-chai burst in and teased him for forgetting the “green wax” allusion on the night of the Feast of Lanterns. 霍克斯: We have shown how Bao-yu was in Dai-yu?s room telling her the story of the magic mice; how Bao-Chai burst in on them and twitted Bao-yu with his failure to remember the …green wax? allusion on the night of the Lantern Festival; and how the three of them sat teasing each other with good-humored banter. 对比分析：杨宪益和霍克斯在翻译“耗子精”采用来了不同的处理方法，前者使用了异化”rat spirits”，后者用的是归化法”magic mice”,使用归化法更受英美读者的亲乃。但是二者同时采用了增译法，增添了the story，原文并没有。在翻译“宝玉不知绿烛之典”的“不知”，英文1用的是“forgetting”，而译文2用的是“with failure to ”，显然译文2更符合英美的表达习惯。 那宝玉正恐黛玉饭后贪眠，一时存了食，或夜间走了困，皆非保养身体之法。幸而宝钗走来，大家谈笑，那林黛玉方不欲睡，自己才放了心。 杨宪益：Pao-yu felt relieved as they laughed and made fun of each other, for he had feared that sleeping after lunch might give Tai-yu indigestion or insomnia that night, and so injure her health. Luckily Pao-chai?s arrival and the lively conversation that followed it had woken Tai-yu up. 霍克斯: Bao-yu had been afraid that by sleeping after her meal Dai-yu would give herself indigestion or suffer from insomnia through being insufficiently tired when she went to bed at night, but Bao-chai?s arrival and the lively conversation that followed it banished all Dai-yu?s desire to sleep and enabled him to lay aside his anxiety on her behalf. 对比分析：译文一对原文语序进行了调整，先说了“放心”，再说“担心”，但并不如不调整顺序的逻辑强。译文二只是用了一个“but”就把原文意思分层了两层，逻辑更加清晰，符合西方人注重逻辑的习惯。原文中的“谈笑”是动词，而两个译文版本都是译的“the lively conversation”，是名词，体现了汉语重动态，英文重静态的特点。 忽听他房中嚷起来，大家侧耳听了一听，林黛玉先笑道："这是你妈妈和袭人叫嚷呢。那袭人也罢了，你妈妈再要认真排场她，可见老背晦了。" 杨宪益：Just then, a commotion broke out in Pao-yu?s apartments and three of th em pricked up their ears. “It?s your nanny scolding Hai-jen,” announced Tai-yu. “There?s nothing wrong with Hai-jen, yet your nanny is for ever nagging at her. Old age has befuddled her.”

《傲慢与偏见》译文对比分析

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《乡愁》两个英译本的对比分析

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对比功能分析与翻译

山东外语教学 Shandong Foreign Language Teaching Journal 2006年第4期(总第113期)　 对比功能分析与翻译 许余龙 (上海外国语大学语言文学研究所,上海　200083) 收稿时间:2006206210 作者简介:许余龙(1950-),博士,教授,博士生导师。研究方向:对比语言学,英汉对比,篇章回指。 摘要:本文首先简要讨论了对比功能分析与翻译之间的密切联系。然后以一个实例指出,实际翻译过程是一个决策过程,对比功能分析可以为分析在翻译中可供选择的各种语言选项及其形式、语义特征和篇章、语用使用条件提供一个总体描述框架,因而对指导具体翻译和分析译文所作选择的得失具有很大的实用价值。 关键词:功能主义;对比分析;对比功能分析;翻译 中图分类号:H0 文献标识码:A 文章编号:100222643(2006)04200032061.0引言 对比语言学的核心问题是研究方法问题虽然从事语言对比的研究者很多,但是思考和提出系统的、专门用于语言对比的理论模式和框架的研究者却屈指可数。波兰格但斯克大学的K rzeszowski 教授是其中的一位,而芬兰赫尔辛基大学的Chesterman 教授是另一位这样的学者。如果说前者(1979,1980)提出的“对比生成语法”模式(简介见许余龙1992:180-181;2002:163-164)主要适用于句法结 构对比的话,那么后者(1998)提出的“对比功能分析”模式的适用范围则要广泛得多,不仅可以用于词汇、形态、句法、语义、语用对比,也可以用于话语分析、文体、修辞和社会语言学对比(关于其研究方法以及在英汉对比中的应用,见许余龙2005)。而且,由于Chesterman 是一位多语交际和翻译研究专家,出版过多部语言学和翻译研究方面的专著(如Ches 2terman ,1997;Chesterman &Wagner ,2002;Williams &Chesterman ,2002Π2004),因此他更加强调对比研究与 翻译之间的密切联系。本文将从翻译和对比功能分析的性质和特点出发,讨论两者之间的密切联系,并以一个实例来说明对比功能分析对翻译的指导意义。 2.0对比功能分析与翻译之间的密切联系2.1翻译的性质和特点 著名捷克学者Levy (1967Π1989:38)指出,“从目的论的角度来说,翻译是一个交际过程:翻译的目的是将原文表达的知识信息传递给外国读者。而从译者在进行实际翻译工作时的任何一刻来看,翻译是一个决策过程:一系列的情景需要译者在一组(通常可明确定义的)选项中作出某种选择”。 翻译的这两个基本性质和特点在以后的一些研究中,特别是功能主义取向的研究中(如见Hatim ,19972001;Hatim &Mas on ,1997;Nord ,1997Π2001),得 到了进一步深入的探讨。也正是翻译的这两个基本性质和特点,使得语言文化之间的对比分析和翻译成为两种具有密切联系的研究。正如Hatim (1997Π2001:1)所指出,“要知道对比语言学是如何运作的, 一种有效的方法是通过翻译;而要了解翻译的过程,一种有趣的方法是看译者在处理篇章时作出什么样的选择。” 2.2对比功能分析的性质和特点 所谓对比功能分析,广义而言是从功能主义的角度来进行对比分析的一种研究方法。这一对比分析模式的特点是从察觉到的两种(或多种)语言可表达的相似意义出发,致力于确定这种相似的意义在不同的语言中是如何表达的,不同表达方式的句法、语义、篇章、语用、语境的使用条件是什么,在什么条件下会优先选用哪种形式,等等。对比功能分析与 3

译文对比评析从哪些方面

译文对比评析从哪些方面 第一作品主题。我们首先要明白这部作品或者文章的主题是什么。这就需要我们认真读下序言和简介，这是理解作品关键的地方。无论作品有多长，总有一个中心围绕着，我们要找出来。有时候，一部作品的主题非要看完才会明白。 第二作品人物。一部文学作品，一般会安排好几个主要人物。假如这部作品非常长，有好几部，那么人物就会很多，这与作者的设计有一定的关系。我们知道托马斯·哈代一生共写过十四部长篇小说，但是他的作品人物安排有一个特点就是：两位男主人公和一位女主人公，或者是两位女主人公和一位男主人公，这或与与他自己的体验有一定的关系。因此，我们了解作品的主要人物还是很重要的。 第三作品结构。一部好的文学作品，其中的结构安排会是比较细心的。很多鸿篇巨著，作者一般在结构上不会疏忽。这方面可以以巴尔扎克、雨果、司汤达为代表。说到结构我们会想到《一千零一夜》那种比较独特的结构，就是故事套故事的结构，这种结构后来还被很多文学作者所采用了。我们了解和熟悉作品结构，对于欣赏文学作品还是有着一定的意义。 第四作品风格。一部文学作品，一定有着比较独特的艺术风格，如浪漫主义、现实主义，古典主义，还是意识流。每部文学作品都有着不一样的艺术风格，每个时代的作者，一定会书写具有那个时代特征的作品。如果我们阅读十八世纪

的作品，或许会想到与启蒙运动相关的内容。此外，我们对作品的艺术风格有着一定的了解和领会，对欣赏文艺作品有一定的作用。 第五作品思想。当我们阅读一部文学作品的时候，总会被作者独特的思维和见解所吸引住，也许这就是其中的魅力所在。一部优秀的作品，其中的思想性一定与艺术性相匹配的。作者的人生态度积极或者消极都与那个时代的环境有着密切的关系。我们了解作品思想，实际上能够比较深入的理解那个时代的历史背景，这是分析一部文学作品不可缺少的。

《我为什么而活着》三种译本分析比较

《我为什么而活着》三种中译本的对比赏析 一．写作背景和原文内容介绍 《我为什么而活着》选自《贝特兰·罗素自传》，是这本自传的前言部分。这本书创作于作者晚年时期，它既是作者心灵的抒发，也是生命体验的总结。前言部分很好地总结了作者一生的精神生活：“三种单纯却又极强的激情支配了我的一生：对爱情的渴望，对知识的追求，和对人类苦难感到无法忍受的怜悯之情。”这三种激情是罗素一生在爱情、理智和道德三方面生活的动力。在理智生活中，罗素一生追求确实可靠的知识，然而在现实生活中，他又是一个极富感情的人。正是由于这种对爱情的热烈渴望，他才有了婚姻的波折，几次结合与离异。你可以不赞成他的行为，但却不能指责他感情虚伪。这便是爱情生活中的罗素。罗素以深刻的感悟和敏锐的目光，分析了人生中的三种激情，即对爱的渴望，对知识的追求和对人类苦难的同情。对爱的渴望，使人欣喜若狂，既能解除孤独，又能发现美好的未来。对知识的追求，使人理解人心，了解宇宙，掌握科学。爱和知识把人引向天堂般的境界，而对人类的同情之心又使人回到苦难深重的人间。作者认为这就是人生，值得为此再活一次的人生。 本文作为思考人生意义与价值的经典之作，被众人熟知。经过认真阅读三种不同的译本，并和原文进行对比比较，我认为这三种译本各有千秋。原文是一篇关于人生这样一个严肃话题的议论文--散文的一种，为语域中的正式语体。文章命题清楚，说理透彻，逻辑性强，段落严谨，用词讲究，风格凝重而又不乏诙谐。充满激情和生动的文字使文章在极具说服力的同时又具有文采，从这点看，三种译本都符合要求。 二．三种译本的对比赏析 首先从题目来看，第一种译本《我为什么生活》来源于《世界文学随笔精品大展》，作者泰云；第二种译本《三种激情》来源于《英国散文小书屋》，作者陈炼佳；第三种译本《我生活的目的》来自《英汉文体翻译教程》，作者陈新。纵观以上三种译本，三种激情四个字直接点明文章的中心思想，属意译，即是根据上下文译出来的。其他两种译文则属直译，直接根据题目译出来的，不管是我为什么生活还是我生活的目地，表述都不是那么得体，相较于这两种译文，我更倾向于三种激情。第一句话Three passions, simple but overwhelmingly strong, have governed my life，三种译本采取了不同的处理方法，泰译本采取了“合”的思想，直接把三个小短句合为一句话，译成三种单纯而极其强烈的激情支配着我的一生；陈炼佳译本中直接采取保留原有格式，用三个小短句来翻译，译成三种激情虽然简单，却异常强烈，它们统治着我的生命；而陈新译本中也采取了“合”的思想，把第一句翻译成在我的生活中起支配作用的有三种简单却又极为强烈的情感。第一句的处理上第一种比较好，既简明扼要又准确，第二句把governed译为统治，统治这个词带有感情色彩，而支配则比较中性，因此，支配要比统治恰当。在对第一段最后一句话The three passions, like great winds, have blown me hither and thither, in a wayward course, over a deep ocean of anguish, reaching to the very verge of despair的翻译中，陈新的版本更加表达了作者无奈和绝望的心情，这些情感像大风一样吹来吹去，方向不定，越过深沉痛苦的海洋，直达绝望的边缘。尽管原文里有have blown me 这样的字眼，陈新并没有像其他两位作者一样，