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语义学考试复习资料

语义学复习佛脚大全

--- 鱼太郎

一、填空

1.西方主流语言学派：Traditional philology(lexical meaning),historical comparative L(lexical

meaning),structural L(little attention to meaning),functional L(meaning center theory),TG grammar(standard theory),cognitive L(meaning center theory)

2.语言学不同的研究方式与观点：specific vs general, synchronic vs diachronic,

macrolinguistics vs microlinguistics, thoeritical vs applied, descriptive vs prescriptive

3.结构主义学派代表人物：Saussure, bloomfield

系统功能派代表人物：Firth,M.A.K.Halliday(Ideational meaning, interpersonal meaning&textual meaning)

转换生成语法代表人物：Chomsky(6大阶段：nativism, universal grammar ,autonomy,modularity, formalism,deduction；6变：TG grammar, standard theory, extended standard theory, revised extended standard theory, government&blinding theory, minimalist program ), Katz(在standard theory阶段引入语义成分，使phonology, semantics&syntax成为三大分支)

认知语言学代表人物：Lakoff,Jackendoff

4.语言学三大革命：Structualist L(Saussure: study language itself)→TG grammar(Chomsky:

study mind)→Cognitive L(Lakoff: study embodiment)

5.Saussure的革命-- 两分法：19世纪语言学主流：speech, external, diachronic, entity.

（Chomsky弃之）

6.认知语言学对TG的六大批判基础：embodiment,specific side of L, cognitive strategies,

form and meaning, non-formalism, induction and deduction.

7.Analytic philosophy包括logical empiricism和ordinary language philosophy.前者代表有

Frege, Russel, Wittgenstein(前期),Schlick,Carnap, Tarski,Davidson,Morris等，后者代表有Moore,Wisdom, Wittgenstein（后期）,Austin,Grice,Searle.

8.西方哲学简史的三大转向：Onotological turn→epistemology turn→linguistic turn。从

perceptualism来说是nominalism,重perception和individualism，从rationalism来说是realism,重reasoning,universals,scholasticism

9.语义学分支：philosophical vs linguistic S/formal vs cognitive S/ extensional vs. intensional/

synchronic vs diachronic/structualist S/TG/Radical S./Fuzzy S/cognitive S

10.structuralist semantics的词义是由paradigmatic relations和syntagmatic relations组成，两

大steps是semantic field和componential analysis.

11.TG产生的语义学派：Interpretative(Chomsky, Katz: sentence priority)，

generative(Lakoff:semantics priority)，Case grammar(Fillmore：deep case frame)，Chafe semantics theory(Chafe)，decompositional semantics(Katz&Fodor：lexicon&projection rule) 12.著名理论对应人名：

提出分析句和综合句的是：Hume

Behaviorism的倡导者：Bloomfield

系统意义（Sense）的提出，现代语义学开创者：Frege

外延论(denotational)与表征论(representational)的划分：Saade

语义场：J. Trier

语义成分分析法：Lounsbury,Goodenough

词义关系&句义关系：Kempson

语义公设（meaning postulate）：Carnap(1957)

语义标示（semantic marker）:Katz

真值条件论：Tarski

语义三角：Ogden&Richards

符号学（semiotics）的trilogy：Morris&Peirce(syntax,semantics&pragmatics)

行为语义论：Watson

建构论：Piaget

Speech act是最小的语言交流单位：Searle

礼貌原则，面子保全原则：Brown&Levinson

关联理论：Sperber&wilson

新格莱斯理论：Levinson（Quality＞Manner＞Information）

动态语用学：Jenny Thomas

13.按时间顺序分，语义学包括philology period, traditional s,modern s.(logical s→structualist s

→TG s→Cognitive S)

14.语义产生之前对它的评价：dirty word, Cinderella, dustman, no-man’s land etc.

15.意义有哪些理论？reference theory(Russel: nominalism,realism),ideational

theory(Frege),verification theory(schlick, carnap:priniciple of confirmability), truth value theory(Tarski, Frege),Use theory(Peirce),Behaviorist theory(bloomfiled, Watson: stimulus-response), the theory of situation(Firth, Halliday, Austin: speech act:locutionary,illocutionary, perlocutionary, felicity conditions), the theory of Intention(Grice:Conversational Implicature, CP, Levinson,Searle), theory of componential analysis,theory of substitution, theory of relation(Saussure),phenomenological theory(Husserl),existentialist theory(Heidegger),deconstructional theory(Derrida:trace theory)等

16.Leech对语义学的七分法(hepta-division)：conceptual meaning(=sense),connocative m, social

m, affective m, reflected m, collocative m, thematic m.

17.Sense = sense relations(word:hyponymy,

synonymy,autonymy,ambiguity/sentence:entailment,paraphrase,contraction,aubiguious)+sens

e properties(words:predication features/sentence:analytic sentence永真&synthetic sentence

可真)

18.语义三角：

Concept

Symbol(signifier) Object(signifee)

19.TG句法的生成之道？基础部分是phrase structure&lexicon，经过deep structure，到一系

列的转换规则，包括compositionality,projection rule&collocative rules，最后到达surface structure，由meaning&phonology来表征(其中lexicon的内容是part of speech, semantic features, semantic restriction)(Projection rule包括embedding,attachment,conversion)

20.UG包括principle+parameter

21.TG中语义是解释句法的，语义是为句法服务的，所以才有intrepretative semantics.而

decompositional S是巧妙地运用CA到TG的frame来解释语义。

22.TG的哲学本质是blending philosophy.

23.Case Grammar处理的是深层格框的问题，S=modality+proposition

24.Wittgenstein提出了game theory, meaning-in-use,picture theory(属于reference thory的一部

分).

25.Speech act包括：assertive, directive, commissive, expressive, declarative.

26.Felicity condiction包括：propositional content rules, preparatory rule, sincerity rule,

essenetial rule

27.语言三要素：phonetics, grammar&meaning

28.中国古代意义理论最高成就是：王夫之

29.第一部训诂学工具书：《尔雅》

30.Behaviorist school说“圣人立象以尽其意…故曰鼓之舞以尽神也。”

31.逻辑语义学研究语言形式化(formalization)问题，借用数理逻辑学来描写意义，代表人有

Frege, Russell,Tarski,Carnap等。

32.模糊语义学中的gray theory 由邓聚龙提出。

33.从研究内涵语义学的carnap到可能语义学的Kripke，Montague都是属于意义范畴.

34.述元结构中，五大基本语义成分：figure,ground,motion,path,manner

35.逻辑包括formal logic&dialectical logic,其中前者包括induction&deduction

36.符号(notations)与代表：

V=for all .E=there exist, ~=negation, &=conjuction, V=disjunction, →=implication, = = equivalence.

30 命题演算中，必然p 反对必然非p

差等差等

可能p 下反对可能非p

P&q全真才为真，pVq单真都为真，p→q p真q假才假，p=q同值才真

31语义公设包括hyponymy:Vx(A(x)→B(x))，synonymy:Vx(A(x)→B(x))&Vx(B(x)→A(x)),autonymy:Vx(A(x)→~B(x)).

32Predication=argument+predicate=semantic components(这是TG S 的基础)，注意判断几元谓词

33二元谓词的关系：symmetry, transitivity, reflexivity.

34归纳法的组成：inductive reasoningand others

35形式逻辑的基本规律：同一：a=a,矛盾：a≠a,排中(excluded middle)：a=a or a≠a

36Montague语义学包括：truth conditional s, model theoretic s, possible world s，以及PTQ(解决qualifier, verb tense, subjective mood)

37语义对立词举例：fireman,overlook,overlie

38认知语言学主要观点：embodied view, conceptualization, encyclopedia view, prototype theory, Imgage schema, metaphor(structural metaphor, orientational m, ontological m),iconicity view CM view.(model&frame),parable view

39体验哲学的三原则：embodiment of the mind, unconsciousness of cognition, metaphorical nature of thinking

40Circular model(Saussure) concept→linguistic sounds→transmission→thought formation 41Linear Model(Shannon&Weaver):information source→signal transmission→channel→receiver→destination

42Triangular Model(Newcomb)强调作用在A,B间的X是social environment

43Trapezoid Model(Leech):6 steps包括texual, ideational,interpersonal的交流

44Conic Model(王寅):媒介是form, 核心是meaning.

模式是P V/W R

这是以context为基础，以expression为方式，以encoding&decoding和deduction为机制的

过程。

45字典定义的方法：genus+differentia.

46情感意义中的举例：propaganda：derogatory meaning/empiricism: commendatory meaning/liberalism: commendatory meaning/ sophisticated: neutral meaning

47意义扩展的方式：radiation&concatenation

48主动义与被动义：同源形容词含active&passive meaning, eg. Desirous vs. disirable NB: 物为主语，则被动意义，人为主语，则主动意义

49主观义与客观义：-ed，+to主观；-ing,+for客观，eg. Suspicious好猜忌、可疑的。

50主题义与次要义：topic sentence→supporting sentences（induction）,supporting sentences →topic sentence(reduction)

51在discourse meaning中特别注意connectives的重要性，把握篇章的frame.

52非常规搭配有哪些？rhetoric, zeugma&syllepsis, new application of idioms, from illogical to normal

53Heavy的搭配决定哪些语义？如heavy blow, heavy crop, heavy news等

54搭配在教学中的应用：WPS program, word association exercises.

55两种动词：durative v(= linear meaning) , terminative v.(=dotted meaning)

充分必要性的研究：sufficient condition中，有甲必有乙，无甲可能无乙，necessary condition 中，无甲必无乙，有甲可能有乙，necessary+sufficient condition：有甲有乙，无甲无乙。

所以得出durative condition I →（necessary）←（sufficient）terminative verb necessary sufficient durative condition II

56. 点性动词有：die,stop,finish,leave,lose,marry,arrive,reach,knock,hit；线性动词有live,work,study,sleep,wait,eat,play,rain,run,study,speak,go,watch；点性其他有：at,since,when,if only, till(until)；线性其他有：during,for,while,as long as,till(until),for 5 days, since 1978；点性的体是perfective aspect, general aspect，线性的体是progressive aspect,general aspect.(点点相连，线线相接)

57 点性动词+进行体的三种例外情况：duration, repeated action, upcoming action

58 终延体与动静体的关系：

Durative Terminative Example

Action √Ask,call,help,listen,look

Process √Change,grow,widen,mature

Feeling √√Ache,feel,hurt,itch

Transition √Arrive,die,leave,lose

Transient √Hit,jump,kick,knock

Emotion √Hate,love,believe,desire

Relationship √Be,belong,cost,deserve

59“black”的石化：sun-tanned≠black skin, black tea, ferrous metal…

60选择文章标题应该用superordinate,但不可太大，正确的上下义关系是从concrete 到abstract.

61Peirce关于sign的三分法：Icon(image, diagram, metaphor), index, symbol

62Lakoff&Johnson提出metaphorical cognitive theory: 通过人类的认知和推理将一个概念域（conceptual domain）系统对应地映合（map）到另一个概念域。

63Microsystem: At: Dot(能量聚集，如point at)- On:surfece(论，关于：on practice)-In:aspect(穿衣：in red, in silks)

64象似性发展的时期：stalemate period→saussurian period (arbitrariness)→

post-saussurian period(iconicity)

65句法&现实具有Isomorphy(同构性)

66哪些象似性？iconic sequencing（SVO）, iconic proximity(如help的例子), iconic quantity,marked iconicity

67Vendler四大时间图解：state, activity, accomplishment, achievement

681997年在苏黎世召开语言与文学中的象似性的会议(最近的一次)

补充：69. This ruler and this pen are long: L(a)&L(b)

70. In RGS Plane, one factor based on which R could defer the meaning of P is a common generalized meaning and similar situations shared by P and R.

71 Cognitive school与Chomsky’s Formalist Semantics school相抗衡。

72 Taboo属于numeral Iconicity

73 Generic sentence 类指句: a sentence in which same statement is made about a whole of individuals.(有the或a引导)

74 structural linguistics的基本哲学理论是analytical philosophy,而TG的是formalism.

75 referring expression 指称语：is any expression used in an utterance to refer to sth or sb.(it cannot be exchanged with predicates, cuz there is no continuum running from them.)

76 Leech对语言有多种定义，其中他相信meaning=observable situation.

77 necessary condition on the sense of a predicate is a condition which thing must meet in order to qualify as being correctly described by that predicate.

78 反义词的种类：gradable, relational, complementary

79 白马非马理论是：Gongsun Long提出的。

80 Sememe is the smallest semantic unit which is indivisible.

81 Leech的connotative meaning是与additional subjective meaning有关的

82 composite expression(合成原则)是为了解释Frege’s Principle.

83 Snow is white is true if and only if snow is white是Tarski说的。

84 Extensional s与intensional s的区别是Extensional S regards the reference as the centre of their study.

85 Semantics最早是谁使用的？Michael Breal(Essay de Semantique)

86 The theory of integration can be described as the whole is more than he composition of its parts.

87. equative sentence is one which is used to assert the identity of the referents of two referring expressions.

88. dictionary的property有？interconnectedness, completeness of coverage, precision.

89 analyticity是a sense property of sentences.

90 stereotype与prototype有什么区别？stereotype指的是具体特征，prototype指的是entity.

91 cognitive linguitics的哲学与心理基础是：embodiment philosophy,embodiment mentalism

92 美国三大pragmatist philosophers是William James, Peirce& John Dewey

93 idioms are naming units

94 Donald,Davison提出：to give truth condition a way of giving the meaning of the sentence.

95. XXX is a man. 是one-place predicate.

96 Synonymy是a relation between two predicates that have the same sense.

97 sentence is a grammatically complete string of words expressing a complete though.

98 Lyons按功能把意义分为：descriptive, social & expressive.

99 语义学作为独立学科发行的书籍是：Semantics: studies in the science of meaning.

100 不是deictic word的是place,而易误判不是的是today.

101 常判断哪个不是predicate? you

102 Logical semantics的代表人物是Montague.

103 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis两大要旨是linguistic determinism & linguistic relativity.

104 现代句意理论创始者是Katz.

105 既有唯名论又有唯实论的是荀子（正名篇）

106 core of linguitic logic是：by analyzing logical problems, people can solve linguitic problems

107 Leech的梯形图的缺点是：没有考虑进meaning in communication.

108 Logical positivism是谁提出的：Schlick.

二、简单/论述题

1.什么是语义学：a.semantics is a branch of linguistics dealing with the meaning of words,

phrases and sentences, however, contrary to pragmatics it does not analyze the intended speaker meaning, or what words denote on a given occasion, but the objective, conventional meaning in a narrow sense.

b. synonym of sense or content

c. a reciprocal and reverisble relationship between name and sense.

2.Sense与Reference的区别：(先给出定义，再做区别)

Sense is the congnitive content associated wit ha sign and reference is the object to which the sign refers to

Reference is concerned with the relation between a linguistic and non-linguistic unit.

a.words with meaning have sense but not always have reference.

b.The same sense may have the different references.

c.The same reference may derive from the different senses.

d.In the dictionary, only the sense can be recorded as entry.

e.Sense, which is radical, is the core of the meaning while reference, as the peripherized

member, is not that important.

f.Sense is characterized by stability and explicitness, whereas reference is featured by

changeablity and fuzziness.

g.Sense is limited while reference is endless.

h.Sense is abstract form of the world whilst reference is concrete.

i.Proposition and sentence meaning are all sense while utterance meaning belong to reference.

3.propositition, sentence和utterance的区别？（先定义，再区分）

proposition is that part of the meaning of the utterance of a declarative sentence which describes some state of affairs.

Sentence is a grammatically complete string od words expressing a complete thought. Utterance is any stretch of talk, by one person, before and after which there is silence on the part of that person.

a.In terms of category, proposition belongs to logics, sentence belongs to syntax and utterance

belongs to pragmatics.

b.With regard to properties, proposition is abstract, sentence is somewhat concrete and utterance

is more concrete.

c.In terms of creteria, proposition relies on truth condition, sentence relies on grammaticality

and utterance depends on acceptablity.

d.As to the relationship with the language, proposition have nothing to do with the specific

language, while sentence and utterance belongs to some language.

e.As to the dialects, proposition and sentence have no relation with it, while utterance relies on

it.

f.In terms of meterality, the case is the same with e.

g.With regard to the sentence pattern, proposition is a declarative sentence, while others are not

limited.

h.As to the relationship with the meaning, proposition is the centre of the meaning which is

stable and has meaning potential, sentence can reflect a certain sense in different pattern, while the utterance can be various in meaning which is deductive and real.

i.As for entailment, P →S,U/ S→U/P,S→U

j.As for ambiguity, there is no ambiguity in proposition while the other two may involve some degrees of ambiguity.

k.In terms of expression, proposition is expressed in logical formula, while other two are various in syntactic and pragmatic categories.

4.什么是训诂学（Chinese traditional semantics）? 意在研究名实之争，中国传统研究古书

上词义的学科，是传统语文学的小分支。它在魏晋时形成独立学科，清末章太炎发展到高峰，但它和语义学是“两股道上跑的车”。

5.中西语义学怎样结合？communication, translation, practice with theory

6.语义形式化的优点？a.intreprete meaning systematically and scentifically b. easy to find the

error c. pave the way for computerization d. clearify the sense relation e. show the ambiguity.

7.区别fuzzy,vague,ambiguous&hedge words

Fuzzy: clear intension but unclear extension

Vague: several sense in an entry

Ambiguous: in different entries.

Hedge: some degree words eg: about, around etc.

8. 语言模糊的特征：a. objectivity&universality b.scope, prototype and membership degree c. unbalance d. communication&pragmatisms

9. 语言模糊的原因：a. objective origin: the world we live in is a continuous entity and hard to find the clear boundary b.subjective cause: our cognition on the world differs from person to person , c.Linguistic cause: there are countless things in the world but our language is limited to express them.

10 人们怎样理解含糊表达？a. relative exactness b. prototypicality c. collocarion d. context e. more questions.

11. 中西语义对比研究？(Humboldt&Saussure为例)

Humboldt认为汉语缺乏语法标志，汉语具有非语音表达形式，汉语有一定文化特性，Saussure 认为汉语理据程度最低（motivation），一个字符代表一个词。评价：H较S更加科学客观。

12.Petrification的程度？a. totally wrong equality b. partially equality c. emotional discrepancy

13 Petrification的原因？a. Names of things are different in different places b. customs and cultural background are different c. the intrinsic features of different language are different

14 怎样防止petrification? A. Explicitly undertand the meaning in the context https://www.sodocs.net/doc/0514805820.html,e bilinguial dictionary. C. understand the culture background d. deal with unlearn problem. D understanding

words while using association.

15 proposition定义？It is that part of the meaning of the utterance of a declarative sentence which describes some states of affairs.

16 reference的定义？a relationship between a particular object in the world and an expression used in an utterance to pick that object out.

17 sense的定义？an expression is its relationship to semantically equivalent or semantically related expressions in the same language.

补充：18. Evaluate the Semantic Triangle?

It is proposed by Ogden and Richards, in which the symbol refers to the linguistic elements, the referent refers to object in the world and thought refers to the concept. Therefore, the symbol of a word signifies things by virtue of the concept. In this system, concept has direct relationship with referent and symbol but symbol has no direct relationship with referent just because one thing can be expressed in different words.

In terms of its shortcomings, it poorly deals with polysemous words, and it doesn’t have semantic meaning when being divided into morpheme, and only a few words have the “signified”and sometimes they have different meanings so that we cannot differentiate them etc.

19. All the sentences which contain ambiguous words are ambiguous, and all the sentences which contain no ambiguous words are unambiguous? 判断分析

No, The meaning of the sentence is to say that all the ambiguities are caused by ambiguous words. It is just about sentence ambiguity on the level of lexicon. While the sentence ambiguity has two levels – lexical level resulting from ambiguity of a word reflected by homonymy and polysemy and grammatical level resulting from different relationships of words. Therefore, whether a sentence is ambiguous is not decided by if there is any ambiguous word in it, sometimes even a sentence containing an ambiguous word is not ambiguous.

20. How many kinds of meaning did linguists find and study?

Fries makes a traditional distinction between lexical meaning and structural meaning, and then Leech further divides them into seven categories, namely conceptual meaning, connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, thematic meaning and collocative meaning. In fact, according to Wang Yin, meaning can be divided into many types from different angles, namely, speaker’s meaning and hearer’s meaning from the roles played by participants, natural meaning and non-natural meaning in the light of communicative essence, morpheme meaning, word meaning, sentence meaning and utterance meaning from different structure, intensional and extensional meaning philosophically, descriptive, social and expressive meaning respectively by Lyons, conceptual meaning and attached meaning according to the different roles, finally the proposition, sentence and utterance meaning.

21 How many semantic relations are there among sentence? Give example

Four. A. paraphase, eg. I love you=I am fond of you. b. entailment. Eg. Tom married a blond heiress entails mark married a blond c. contradiction. Eg. We are unmarried couples d. ambuguity. Eg I give you the hammer and saw through the window.

22. What’s arbitrariness? Your opinion about it in contrast to iconicity?

not arbitrary, but motivated. In my view, iconicity is not an absolute negation of arbitrariness but a complementary feature. They are both design features of language at different levels. At the lower level, arbitrariness plays a bigger role while at a higher one, iconicity overwhelms arbitrariness. However, total arbitrariness means a total negation of mappings between human concept and language.

23. Features of 2 place predicates?

Symmetrical/symmetrical, semantic formula is written as Axy(M(x.y))→M(y,x,)).

Transitive/Intransitive, show an attribute like behind above and in front of, which goes like Axyz(R(x,y)&R(y,z)→R(x,z))

Reflexive/Irreflexive have the following semantic meaning as equal, identical , Axy(x,y)→R(x,x) 24 Tell the difference between pour him a drink and pour a drink to him?

According to the cognitive linguitics, iconicity of distance, if pour is closely followed by him, then the person is probably be presented, the other expression doesn’t have this sense.

25 Translate sentences into logical forms

a. Ann is Bill’s mother. M(a,b)

b. Bill loves Carol, and Carol loves Bill. L(b,c)&L(c,b)

c. Ann loves Bill, but Ann doesn’t love Carol. L(a,b)&~L(a,c)

26 What’s features of metaphor according to cognitive linguistics?

a. Conventionality indicates that some metaphors have become fossilized or dead metaphors.

b. Systematicity refers to the way that metaphor doesn’t just set up a single point of comparison.

c. asymmetry refers to the way that metaphors are directional which means they provoke the listener or reader to transfer features from the source to target domain.

d. abstraction means that metaphor uses a more concrete source to describe a more abstract target.

27 What do you think of semantic formalization? Merit and demerit?

Semantic formalization, which uses mathematical logic to describe language meaning, is one of the main streams of inevitable semantic research.

Merits: a. interpret meaning more scientifically and systemically b. easy to check or discover the errors c. helpful to machine translation d interpret sense relations more exactly e. formulate the ambiguity.

Demerits: a. insufficient to clarify the complicated semantic rules b. makes language change into some stark or mechanical signs. C. cannot include all kinds of semantic phenomenon. D. too complicated to be understood. E. some words cannot be interpreted by formulation in a subtle way.

F. they don’t have the same format.

28 What’s the disadvantage of Naming Theory?

It regards that there is a direct relationship between the word form and its reference.The disadvantage of it is the following threes. A. all the words have sense, but not every word has its referent. B. linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. C. there are occasions when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense.

29 区别一堆概念？

Meaning: association of language symbols with the real world.

Concept: impression of objects in people’s mind.

Connotation: implied meaning, similar to implicature.

Sense: lexical position in which a word finds itself.

Denotation: is not directly related with objects but make the abstract assumption of the real world. Reference: the world-object relationship

Implicature: convesation implicature is achieved by intentionally violating the CP. Signification: the meaning of a word taught to pupils may not have any communicative value.

30 Difference between cognitive linguitics and TG L?

TG Linguitics belongs to formalism. It is a universal grammar. TG linguistists consider language as autonomous system, in principle independent of other knowledge and competence. In TG L meaning can be described by truth-value and production is prior to generalization.

While cognitive linguitics belongs to functionalism. Cognitive linguistists consider the structures of grammar and meaning change with different languages and competence is one part of human’s general cognitive competence. Meaning cannot be described by truth-value. It is an course of objective and subjective course interacted. Cognitive L consider that generalization is prior to production.

31 Difference between prototype and stereotype?

Stereotype is a list of the typical characteristics of things to which the predicate may be applied while prototype is a typical member of its extension. The stereotype of a predicate may often specify a range of possibilities but an individual prototype of this predicate will necessarily take some particular place within this range. In terms of speakers, they may know the sterotype but not familiar with prototype .

32 Main points held by Nominalism and Realism?

In 1976, Palmer put forward the Naming theory divided into 2 categories; nominalism and realism. The main points of the former is that signal bears no inherent relationship with its referent while the latter is the relationship between signal and its referent is intrinsic.

33 Major principles about formal semantics?

a. compositionality

b. rule to rule hypothesis

c. fragmentary approach

d.most certain principle

34 Is the act of addressing sb. Illocutionary or perlocutionary?

Illocutionary. Because the illocutionary act inherent in an utterance is intended by the speaker, is under his full control. If it is evident, it is so as the utterance is made. In the act of addressing, it is sth that a speaker can decide for himself to do, and be sure of doing it when he decides to do it. The hearer in a speech situation cannot decide whether to be addressed or not.

35 Relationship between interpretative semantics and generative semantics?

Interpretive semantics(Chomsky, Katz)is a part of Chomsky’s TG grammar which holds meaning comes from syntax, so syntax goes first, semantics is only a part of syntax which can interprete sentences, which is the goal of semantics. Besides, syntax is between phonology and semantics and syntax is grammatical base. According to Cho, there are two sets of rules in TG, transfermational and projection rules which deals with problem of syntax and phonology and semantics respectively.

Generative semantics(Lakoff)states that syntax comes from semantics, semantics goes first. All sentences comes from semantics, which will generate the surface structure with the help of transformational rules and phontics rules. The role of semantics is not to interpret but to generate. Moveover, generative semantician think transformational rules are enough which are also being called predicate-lifting transformations.

36 Differences between metaphor and metonymy?

A metaphor is a conceptual expression in which the characters of the source domain is mapped

onto the target domain whereas a metonymy involves the conceptual mapping taking place across different sub-domains within the same common or superordinate experiential domain so that the source domain mentally activates the target domain. So it is clear that metaphor relates to two domains while metonymy occurs within the same domain. Metaphor is cognitively more useful while the major function of metonymy is to help the hearer to locate or recognize the referent and its special characteristics.

37 What’s synonymy?

It is used to mean sameness or close similarity of meaning. Dictionary makers rely on the existence of synonymy for their denifition. Some semanticians maintains that there are no real synonyms because two or more words named synonyms are expected without exception to differ from one another in one of the following aspects, eg shades, stylistics, emotive, rangg of use etc.

38 State the Game Theory?

It is Wittgenstein later philosophy. The term is introduced by describing some examples of simple prctices, both real and imaginary. Wittgenstein’s builders, children’s games with words, such as ring-a-ring-a-roses, and the ways chilren learns words. But he also applies the term to almost any practice in which language is involved in some way, any interweaving of human life and language. Here the term “language-game” is meant to bring into prominenece the fact that the speaking of language is part of an activity or a form of life.

39 Illustrate the relationship of extension between sense and reference.

An extension is a set of physical objects, which is contrast with sense. A speaker’s knowledge of the sense of a predicate provides him with an idea of its extension. The referent of a referring expression used in a particular utterance is an individual member of the extension of the predicate used in the expression.

40 Shortcoming of reference theory and ideational theory?

Reference theory: a. not suitable for adj, adv. B. one word means different things. C. some imagined things don’t have referents

Ideational theory: a. idea itself is abstract then how can it be used to explain meaning b. meaning is abstract so that it is difficult to define an abstract term in using another abstrct term.

41 What is simple proposition?

It is representable by a single predicator, drawn from the predicates in the language, and a number of arguments drawn from the names in the language.This implies, among other things, that no formula for a simple proposition can have two or more predicators and it cannot have anything which is neither a predicate nor a name.

42 What is necessary condition and sufficient set of conditions?

Necessary condition on the sense of a predicate is a condition which a thing must meet in order to quantify as being correctly described by that predicate.

Sufficient set of conditions is a set of conditions which are enough in themselves to guarentee that the predicate correctly describes that thing.

三、词根、词缀

1.Anthrop- :man anthropic, anthropoid, anthropology, anthropologist, anthropological

2.Hydro-: water hydrocarbon, hydrogen, hydropathy, hydrobiology, hydrobiologist

3.Cord-: heart cardinal, cardiovascular, cardiograph, cardiologist, cardiology

4.Ped: foot centipede, biped, bipedal, bepedalism, pedal

5.Ceed: go exceed, precede, accede, recede, concede

6.Log: speak dialog, prologue, logic, logical, antilogy

7.Fer-: carry transfer, infer, confer, refer, defer

8.Dict: speak diction, dictate, edict, indict, predict

9.V olve: turn convolve, involve, revolve, devolve,evolve

10.Tele: far telegram, television, telegraph, telecommunication, telescope

11.Ab: against abnormal,abuse, abscise, abdicate, abhor

12.e-: out : emit, emission, eject, erupt, efface

13.ceive-: take conceive, perceive, receive, deceive,preconceive

14.ate: verbalization eradicate, extricate, domesticate, replicate, abate

15.eu: good euphemism, euthanasia, eugenics, eulogize, euphony

语义学复习佛脚大全

--- 鱼太郎

一、填空

37.西方主流语言学派：Traditional philology(lexical meaning),historical comparative L(lexical

meaning),structural L(little attention to meaning),functional L(meaning centre theory),TG grammar(standard theory),cognitive L(meaning centre theory)

38.语言学不同的研究方式与观点：specific vs general, synchronic vs diachronic,

macrolinguistics vs microlinguistics, thoeritical vs applied, descriptive vs prescriptive

39.结构主义学派代表人物：Saussure, bloomfield

系统功能派代表人物：Firth,M.A.K.Halliday(Ideational meaning, interpersonal meaning&textual meaning)

认知语言学代表人物：Lakoff,Jackendoff

40.语言学三大革命：Structualist L(Saussure: study language itself)→TG grammar(Chomsky:

study mind)→Cognitive L(Lakoff: study embodiment)

41.Saussure的革命-- 两分法：19世纪语言学主流：speech, external, diachronic, entity.

（Chomsky弃之）

42.认知语言学对TG的六大批判基础：embodiment,specific side of L, cognitive strategies,

form and meaning, non-formalism, induction and deduction.

43.Analytic philosophy包括logical empiricism和ordinary language philosophy.前者代表有

Frege, Russel, Wittgenstein(前期),Schlick,Carnap, Tarski,Davidson,Morris等，后者代表有Moore,Wisdom, Wittgenstein（后期）,Austin,Grice,Searle.

44.西方哲学简史的三大转向：Onotological turn→epistemology turn→linguistic turn。从

perceptualism来说是nominalism,重perception和individualism，从rationalism来说是realism,重reasoning,universals,scholasticism

45.语义学分支：philosophical vs linguistic S/formal vs cognitive S/ extensional vs. intensional/

synchronic vs diachronic/structualist S/TG/Radical S./Fuzzy S/cognitive S

46.structuralist semantics的词义是由paradigmatic relations和syntagmatic relations组成，两

大steps是semantic field和componential analysis.

47.TG产生的语义学派：Interpretative(Chomsky, Katz: sentence priority)，

提出分析句和综合句的是：Hume

Behaviorism的倡导者：Bloomfield

系统意义（Sense）的提出，现代语义学开创者：Frege

外延论(denotational)与表征论(representational)的划分：Saade

语义场：J. Trier

语义成分分析法：Lounsbury,Goodenough

词义关系&句义关系：Kempson

语义公设（meaning postulate）：Carnap(1957)

语义标示（semantic marker）:Katz

真值条件论：Tarski

语义三角：Ogden&Richards

符号学（semiotics）的trilogy：Morris&Peirce(syntax,semantics&pragmatics)

行为语义论：Watson

建构论：Piaget

Speech act是最小的语言交流单位：Searle

礼貌原则，面子保全原则：Brown&Levinson

关联理论：Sperber&wilson

新格莱斯理论：Levinson（Quality＞Manner＞Information）

动态语用学：Jenny Thomas

49.按时间顺序分，语义学包括philology period, traditional s,modern s.(logical s→structualist s

→TG s→Cognitive S)

50.语义产生之前对它的评价：dirty word, Cinderella, dustman, no-man’s land etc.

51.意义有哪些理论？reference theory(Russel: nominalism,realism),ideational

52.Leech对语义学的七分法(hepta-division)：conceptual meaning(=sense),connocative m, social

m, affective m, reflected m, collocative m, thematic m.

53.Sense = sense relations(word:hyponymy,

synonymy,autonymy,ambiguity/sentence:entailment,paraphrase,contraction,aubiguious)+sens

e properties(words:predication features/sentence:analytic sentence永真&synthetic sentence

可真)

54.语义三角：

Concept

Symbol(signifier) Object(signifee)

55.TG句法的生成之道？基础部分是phrase structure&lexicon，经过deep structure，到一系

56.UG包括principle+parameter

57.TG中语义是解释句法的，语义是为句法服务的，所以才有intrepretative semantics.而

decompositional S是巧妙地运用CA到TG的frame来解释语义。

58.TG的哲学本质是blending philosophy.

59.Case Grammar处理的是深层格框的问题，S=modality+proposition

60.Wittgenstein提出了game theory, meaning-in-use,picture theory(属于reference thory的一部

分).

61.Speech act包括：assertive, directive, commissive, expressive, declarative.

62.Felicity condiction包括：propositional content rules, preparatory rule, sincerity rule,

essenetial rule

63.语言三要素：phonetics, grammar&meaning

64.中国古代意义理论最高成就是：王夫之

65.第一部训诂学工具书：《尔雅》

66.Behaviorist school说“圣人立象以尽其意…故曰鼓之舞以尽神也。”

67.逻辑语义学研究语言形式化(formalization)问题，借用数理逻辑学来描写意义，代表人有

Frege, Russell,Tarski,Carnap等。

68.模糊语义学中的gray theory 由邓聚龙提出。

69.从研究内涵语义学的carnap到可能语义学的Kripke，Montague都是属于意义范畴.

70.述元结构中，五大基本语义成分：figure,ground,motion,path,manner

71.逻辑包括formal logic&dialectical logic,其中前者包括induction&deduction

72.符号(notations)与代表：

V=for all .E=there exist, ~=negation, &=conjuction, V=disjunction, →=implication, = = equivalence.

30 命题演算中，必然p 反对必然非p

差等差等

可能p 下反对可能非p

P&q全真才为真，pVq单真都为真，p→q p真q假才假，p=q同值才真

56语义公设包括hyponymy:Vx(A(x)→B(x))，synonymy:Vx(A(x)→B(x))&Vx(B(x)→A(x)),autonymy:Vx(A(x)→~B(x)).

57Predication=argument+predicate=semantic components(这是TG S 的基础)，注意判断几元谓词

58二元谓词的关系：symmetry, transitivity, reflexivity.

59归纳法的组成：inductive reasoningand others

60形式逻辑的基本规律：同一：a=a,矛盾：a≠a,排中(excluded middle)：a=a or a≠a

61Montague语义学包括：truth conditional s, model theoretic s, possible world s，以及PTQ(解决qualifier, verb tense, subjective mood)

62语义对立词举例：fireman,overlook,overlie

63认知语言学主要观点：embodied view, conceptualization, encyclopedia view, prototype theory, Imgage schema, metaphor(structural metaphor, orientational m, ontological

m),iconicity view CM view.(model&frame),parable view

64体验哲学的三原则：embodiment of the mind, unconsciousness of cognition, metaphorical nature of thinking

65Circular model(Saussure) concept→linguistic sounds→transmission→thought formation 66Linear Model(Shannon&Weaver):information source→signal transmission→channel→receiver→destination

67Triangular Model(Newcomb)强调作用在A,B间的X是social environment

68Trapezoid Model(Leech):6 steps包括texual, ideational,interpersonal的交流

69Conic Model(王寅):媒介是form, 核心是meaning.

模式是P V/W R

这是以context为基础，以expression为方式，以encoding&decoding和deduction为机制的过程。

70字典定义的方法：genus+differentia.

71情感意义中的举例：propaganda：derogatory meaning/empiricism: commendatory meaning/liberalism: commendatory meaning/ sophisticated: neutral meaning

72意义扩展的方式：radiation&concatenation

73主动义与被动义：同源形容词含active&passive meaning, eg. Desirous vs. disirable NB: 物为主语，则被动意义，人为主语，则主动意义

74主观义与客观义：-ed，+to主观；-ing,+for客观，eg. Suspicious好猜忌、可疑的。

75主题义与次要义：topic sentence→supporting sentences（induction）,supporting sentences →topic sentence(reduction)

76在discourse meaning中特别注意connectives的重要性，把握篇章的frame.

77非常规搭配有哪些？rhetoric, zeugma&syllepsis, new application of idioms, from illogical to normal

78Heavy的搭配决定哪些语义？如heavy blow, heavy crop, heavy news等

79搭配在教学中的应用：WPS program, word association exercises.

80两种动词：durative v(= linear meaning) , terminative v.(=dotted meaning)

所以得出durative condition I →（necessary）←（sufficient）terminative verb necessary sufficient durative condition II

57 点性动词+进行体的三种例外情况：duration, repeated action, upcoming action

58 终延体与动静体的关系：

Durative Terminative Example

Action √Ask,call,help,listen,look

Process √Change,grow,widen,mature

Feeling √√Ache,feel,hurt,itch

Transition √Arrive,die,leave,lose

Transient √Hit,jump,kick,knock

Emotion √Hate,love,believe,desire

Relationship √Be,belong,cost,deserve

59“black”的石化：sun-tanned≠black skin, black tea, ferrous metal…

60选择文章标题应该用superordinate,但不可太大，正确的上下义关系是从concrete 到abstract.

61Peirce关于sign的三分法：Icon(image, diagram, metaphor), index, symbol

62Lakoff&Johnson提出metaphorical cognitive theory: 通过人类的认知和推理将一个概念域（conceptual domain）系统对应地映合（map）到另一个概念域。

63Microsystem: At: Dot(能量聚集，如point at)- On:surfece(论，关于：on practice)-In:aspect(穿衣：in red, in silks)

64象似性发展的时期：stalemate period→saussurian period (arbitrariness)→post-saussurian period(iconicity)

65句法&现实具有Isomorphy(同构性)

66哪些象似性？iconic sequencing（SVO）, iconic proximity(如help的例子), iconic quantity,marked iconicity

67Vendler四大时间图解：state, activity, accomplishment, achievement

681997年在苏黎世召开语言与文学中的象似性的会议(最近的一次)

补充：69. This ruler and this pen are long: L(a)&L(b)

70. In RGS Plane, one factor based on which R could defer the meaning of P is a common

generalized meaning and similar situations shared by P and R.

71 Cognitive school与Chomsky’s Formalist Semantics school相抗衡。

72 Taboo属于numeral Iconicity

73 Generic sentence 类指句: a sentence in which same statement is made about a whole of

individuals.(有the或a引导)

74 structural linguistics的基本哲学理论是analytical philosophy,而TG的是formalism.

75 referring expression 指称语：is any expression used in an utterance to refer to sth or sb.(it

cannot be exchanged with predicates, cuz there is no continuum running from them.)

76 Leech对语言有多种定义，其中他相信meaning=observable situation.

77 necessary condition on the sense of a predicate is a condition which thing must meet in

order to qualify as being correctly described by that predicate.

78 反义词的种类：gradable, relational, complementary

79 白马非马理论是：Gongsun Long提出的。

80 Sememe is the smallest semantic unit which is indivisible.

81 Leech的connotative meaning是与additional subjective meaning有关的

82 composite expression(合成原则)是为了解释Frege’s Principle.

83 Snow is white is true if and only if snow is white是Tarski说的。

84 Extensional s与intensional s的区别是Extensional S regards the reference as the centre

of their study.

85 Semantics最早是谁使用的？Michael Breal(Essay de Semantique)

86 The theory of integration can be described as the whole is more than he composition of its

parts.

87. equative sentence is one which is used to assert the identity of the referents of two

referring expressions.

88. dictionary的property有？interconnectedness, completeness of coverage, precision.

89 analyticity是a sense property of sentences.

90 stereotype与prototype有什么区别？stereotype指的是具体特征，prototype指的是

entity.

91 cognitive linguitics的哲学与心理基础是：embodiment philosophy,embodiment

mentalism

92 美国三大pragmatist philosophers是William James, Peirce& John Dewey

93 idioms are naming units

94 Donald,Davison提出：to give truth condition a way of giving the meaning of the sentence.

95. XXX is a man. 是one-place predicate.

96 Synonymy是a relation between two predicates that have the same sense.

97 sentence is a grammatically complete string of words expressing a complete though.

98 Lyons按功能把意义分为：descriptive, social & expressive.

99 语义学作为独立学科发行的书籍是：Semantics: studies in the science of meaning.

100 不是deictic word的是place,而易误判不是的是today.

101 常判断哪个不是predicate? you

102 Logical semantics的代表人物是Montague.

103 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis两大要旨是linguistic determinism & linguistic relativity.

104 现代句意理论创始者是Katz.

105 既有唯名论又有唯实论的是荀子（正名篇）

106 core of linguitic logic是：by analyzing logical problems, people can solve linguitic problems

107 Leech的梯形图的缺点是：没有考虑进meaning in communication.

108 Logical positivism是谁提出的：Schlick.

三、简单/论述题

8.什么是语义学：a.semantics is a branch of linguistics dealing with the meaning of words,

b. synonym of sense or content

c. a reciprocal and reverisble relationship between name and sense.

9.Sense与Reference的区别：(先给出定义，再做区别)

Sense is the congnitive content associated wit ha sign and reference is the object to which the sign refers to

Reference is concerned with the relation between a linguistic and non-linguistic unit.

j.words with meaning have sense but not always have reference.

k.The same sense may have the different references.

l.The same reference may derive from the different senses.

m.In the dictionary, only the sense can be recorded as entry.

n.Sense, which is radical, is the core of the meaning while reference, as the peripherized member, is not that important.

o.Sense is characterized by stability and explicitness, whereas reference is featured by changeablity and fuzziness.

p.Sense is limited while reference is endless.

q.Sense is abstract form of the world whilst reference is concrete.

r.Proposition and sentence meaning are all sense while utterance meaning belong to reference.

10.propositition, sentence和utterance的区别？（先定义，再区分）

proposition is that part of the meaning of the utterance of a declarative sentence which describes some state of affairs.

l.In terms of category, proposition belongs to logics, sentence belongs to syntax and utterance belongs to pragmatics.

m.With regard to properties, proposition is abstract, sentence is somewhat concrete and utterance is more concrete.

n.In terms of creteria, proposition relies on truth condition, sentence relies on grammaticality and utterance depends on acceptablity.

o.As to the relationship with the language, proposition have nothing to do with the specific language, while sentence and utterance belongs to some language.

p.As to the dialects, proposition and sentence have no relation with it, while utterance relies on it.

q.In terms of meterality, the case is the same with e.

r.With regard to the sentence pattern, proposition is a declarative sentence, while others are not limited.

s.As to the relationship with the meaning, proposition is the centre of the meaning which is stable and has meaning potential, sentence can reflect a certain sense in different pattern, while the utterance can be various in meaning which is deductive and real.

t.As for entailment, P →S,U/ S→U/P,S→U

u.As for ambiguity, there is no ambiguity in proposition while the other two may involve some degrees of ambiguity.

v.In terms of expression, proposition is expressed in logical formula, while other two are various in syntactic and pragmatic categories.

11.什么是训诂学（Chinese traditional semantics）? 意在研究名实之争，中国传统研究古书

上词义的学科，是传统语文学的小分支。它在魏晋时形成独立学科，清末章太炎发展到高峰，但它和语义学是“两股道上跑的车”。

12.中西语义学怎样结合？communication, translation, practice with theory

13.语义形式化的优点？a.intreprete meaning systematically and scentifically b. easy to find the

error c. pave the way for computerization d. clearify the sense relation e. show the ambiguity.

14.区别fuzzy,vague,ambiguous&hedge words

Fuzzy: clear intension but unclear extension

Vague: several sense in an entry

Ambiguous: in different entries.

Hedge: some degree words eg: about, around etc.

8. 语言模糊的特征：a. objectivity&universality b.scope, prototype and membership degree c. unbalance d. communication&pragmatisms

9. 语言模糊的原因：a. objective origin: the world we live in is a continuous entity and hard to find the clear boundary b.subjective cause: our cognition on the world differs from person to

person , c.Linguistic cause: there are countless things in the world but our language is limited to express them.

10 人们怎样理解含糊表达？a. relative exactness b. prototypicality c. collocarion d. context e. more questions.

11. 中西语义对比研究？(Humboldt&Saussure为例)

12.Petrification的程度？a. totally wrong equality b. partially equality c. emotional discrepancy

13 Petrification的原因？a. Names of things are different in different places b. customs and cultural background are different c. the intrinsic features of different language are different

15 proposition定义？It is that part of the meaning of the utterance of a declarative sentence which describes some states of affairs.

16 reference的定义？a relationship between a particular object in the world and an expression used in an utterance to pick that object out.

17 sense的定义？an expression is its relationship to semantically equivalent or semantically related expressions in the same language.

补充：18. Evaluate the Semantic Triangle?

19. All the sentences which contain ambiguous words are ambiguous, and all the sentences which contain no ambiguous words are unambiguous? 判断分析

20. How many kinds of meaning did linguists find and study?

intensional and extensional meaning philosophically, descriptive, social and expressive meaning respectively by Lyons, conceptual meaning and attached meaning according to the different roles, finally the proposition, sentence and utterance meaning.

21 How many semantic relations are there among sentence? Give example

22. What’s arbitrariness? Your opinion about it in contrast to iconicity?

Arbitrariness, proposed by Saussure, refers to the fact that the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning, which is the first principle of language. But in my opinion, he overstated its importance, ignoring the fact that signifier and signified have a certain motivation. On the other hand, iconicity, proposed by Pierce, refers to the fact that signifier and signified are not arbitrary, but motivated. In my view, iconicity is not an absolute negation of arbitrariness but a complementary feature. They are both design features of language at different levels. At the lower level, arbitrariness plays a bigger role while at a higher one, iconicity overwhelms arbitrariness. However, total arbitrariness means a total negation of mappings between human concept and language.