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元话语的分类

元话语的分类
元话语的分类

2 元话语的分类

由于对元话语的性质和功能的认识差异,对元话语的分类也存在不同。迄今为止,元话语已有几种不同的分类体系(参Williams ,1981 ;Lautamatti ,1978 ;Vande ,1985 ;Crismore ,1989 ;Crismore et al ,1993 ;Hyland ,1998 ,2005) 。本研究将会主要讨论三种分法:Kopple(1985)、Crismore et al (1993)以及Hyland(2004)。

Vande Kopple(1985)基于Lautamatti和Williams对元话语的研究, 概括了7种元话语并将其分为语篇元话语和人际元话语两大类型。其中, 语篇元话语指的是在语篇中连接语篇各层次的主要成分, 组词成篇的词和短语。人际元话语主要是体现作者和读者关系的词和短语, 见表1。

表1Vande Kopple的元话语分类

Category Function Examples

Textual metadiscourse Text

connectives

Show how parts of a

text are connected to

one another

sequencers (first,

next),

reminders (as I

mentioned

in Chapter 2),

topicalizers(with

regard to)

Code

glosses

Help readers grasp the

writer?s intended

meaning

mean, such as

Validity

markers

Express the writer?s

commitment to a

statement

hedges (perhaps,

might),

emphatics

(undoubtedly),

attributors (according

to)

Narrators Inform readers of the

source of information

according to Smith,

Interpersonal metadiscourse Illocution

markers

Make the discourse

act explicit at certain

point

to conclude, I

hypothesize,

to sum up, we predict Attitude

markers

Express the writer?s

attitudes

unfortunately,

interestingly,

I wish that Commentaries address readers

directly, drawing them

into an implicit

dialogue

you will certainly

agree that, you might

want to

read the third chapter

first

不难看出, VandeKopple的分类存在问题, 如, 同样是“ according to ”, 既属于归属语又属于叙说词。One problem in identifying metadiscourse is its multifunctionality, that is, the functions are not performed in isolation and one metadiscourse may achieve several purposes simultaneously. Therefore, in order to solve this problem, Crismore, Markkanen, and Steffensen (1993) in their classification try to use a functional analysis: metadiscourse is defined according to its primary function in the context. Crismoreetal(1993)在VandeKopple(1985)的分类基础上, 也将元话语分为两大类:语篇元话语和人际元话语。Crismoreetal的分类中去掉了叙说词一项, 将逻辑连接词、序列词、提醒词和主题词概括为语篇标记语, 同时将语码注释词和施事标记词纳入解释标记语。语篇标记语和解释标记语这一全新分法说明了元话语的语篇功能:语篇标记语帮助组织语篇, 解释标记语帮助读者解释和更好地理解作者的意图及写作策略。For interpersonal metadiscourse, validity markers, which is a subcategory of textual metadiscourse, is now under the classification of interpersonal metadiscourse and three separate subcategories --- hedges, certainty markers,and attributors are included. Attributors are combined with narrators because both are used to inform the readers of the source of ideas. 见表2

不过, Crismore etal的这一分法也存在一些问题, 如, 将语篇元话语分为语篇标记语和解释标记语的依据不明确, 另外, 用来指称语篇前部分所提内容的提醒词属于语篇标记语, 而用于指称语篇后部分所提内容的宣告词却又属于解释标记语, 这似乎有点牵强附会。Category Function Examples

Textual metadiscourse

Textual Markers Logical

Connectives

we noted earlier Help show

connections

between ideas

and, but, therefore

Sequencers Help show sequence

of material

first, second

Reminders Refer to earlier text

material As we saw in Chapter1

Topicalizers Indicate topic shift or

a new topic Well; now I will discuss,in regard to

Interpretive Markers Code Glosses Explain text material What I mean is , that

is, for example Illocution Markers Name the act

performed

To conclude;in sum;I

predict Announcements Announcing

upcoming material

In the next section

Interpersonal

metadiscourse

Hedges Show lack of

commitment to the

truth-value of

proposition

may, might

Certainty Markers Show full

commitment to I absolutely sure I know

the truth-value of

proposition

Attributors Refer to authorities

used for persuasive

force

Einstein claimed that

Attitude Markers Express writer?s

affective

values

I agree, unfortunately

Commentary Build writer-reader

relationships My friend, you may not agree that

Hyland(2004)认为, 将元话语分为语篇元话语和人际元话语不太确切, 应将元话语分为指引读者读完整个语篇的交互式元话语和帮助读者掌握论点的互动式元话。其中, 交互式元话语涉及作者对读者的意识, 以及作者对读者的知识、兴趣、修辞期望和语篇处理能力的调解, 它反映了作者组织语篇的方法, 在一定程度上体现出作者在创作语篇的过程中考虑到了读者的需求。而互动式元话语是作者通过入侵语篇和对语篇信息加以评论来引领互动展开交际的方法, 它在一定程度上体现了语篇是由作者和读者一起构建的。关于Hyland的分类模式,本文将会在theoretical basis 里详细解释。

Category Function Examples

Interactive metadiscourse Help to guide the reader through the text

Transitions express relations between

main clause

in addition; but; thus; and

Frame markers refer to discourse acts,

sequences or stages finally; to conclude; my purpose is

Endophoric markers refer to information in

other parts of the text noted above; see Fig; in section2

Evidentials refer to information in

other parts of the text

according to X; Z states

Code glosses elaborate propositional

meanings namely; e.g.; such as; in other words

Interactional

metadiscourse

Involve the reader in the text

Hedges withhold commitment and

open dialogue might; perhaps; possible; about

Boosters emphasize certainty or close

dialogue in fact; definitely; it is clear that

Attitude markers express writer?s attitude to

proposition unfortunately; I agree; surprisingly

Self mentions explicit reference to

author(s)

I; we; my; me; our

Engagement markers explicitly build

relationship with reader consider; note; you can see that

Class 2 metadiscourse

Recognizing the differences in the nature and function of meta discourse, the discourse of the dollar classification are also different. To date, there are several different metadiscourse classification system (see Williams, 1981; Lautamatti, 1978; Vande, 1985; Crismore, 1989; Crismore et al, 1993; Hyland, 1998, 2005). Xu Jiujiu (2006) summarize findings and discuss the classification of metadiscourse mainly in vocabulary classes. From the current research point of view, there are three main points of law: chapter Kopple (1988) proposed and interpersonal metadiscourse, Hyland and Tse (2004) proposed a guided and interactive metadiscourse, and Ifantidou (2005) proposed internal discourse and External chapter metadiscourse.

The first classification is made Vande (1985) made, he put metadiscourse divided into two categories: Text metadiscourse means connecting the main component of all levels of discourse in chapters, a chapter of the word of words and phrases, including Text Connective (text connectives), language code annotation words (code glosses), validity Signs (validity markers), the narrator (narrator). Interpersonal metadiscourse mainly reflected words and phrases relationship authors and readers, including illocutionary force marked words (illocution markers), attitude identifies words (attitude markers) and author - reader communication identifies words (commentaries).

Hyland(2005) 认为元话语是用来协商语篇互动意义的自我反省(reflexive) 表达形式,有助于表现作者对读者的意识,强调社交成员的交际。因此,不管是篇章元话语还是人际元话语都具有评价、态度和参与等人际意义。在此基础上,他把元话语分为交际和互动两大类。交际类元话语有助于引导读者,注重组织话语的方式,包括过渡标记(transition markers) 、框架标记(frame markers) 、回指标记(endophoric markers) 、言据标记( evidentials) 、语码注释语( code glosses) 。互动类元话语包括模糊语( hedges) 、增强语(boosters) 、态度标记(attitude markers) 、自称语(self mention) 和介入标记(engagement markers) 。

内部\外部篇章元话语的分类是由Ifantidou(2005) 提出的。内部篇章元话语是指同一个篇章中的内部不同部分之间的一种关系;外部篇章元话语指的是不同的篇章、不同的作者, 或同一作者不同时期的篇章的所指关系。他对每一类都列举了一些具体的语言表达手段,但同时指出,所列语言表达式并不是穷尽的。

此外,以上关于元话语的研究中,研究者大多依照Halliday 语言功能理论,把元话语划分为“篇章元话语”和“人际元话语”两大范畴( Vande Kopple 1985; Crismore,et al. 1993) 。Adel( 2006: 18) 突破了以Halliday 功能理论为基础的元话语研究范式,以Jakobson( 1998) 的语言功能理论为依据,提出了“反身元话语”的概念。她从Jakobson 提出的六种语言功能中提取了元语言、表达和指示这三种功能来论述元话语现象。这三个功能的焦点分别是篇章/语码、作者和读者。Hyland (2005) considered metadiscourse interactive discourse is used to negotiate the meaning of self-reflection (reflexive) forms of expression, the author of consciousness contribute to the performance of the readers, emphasizing the communicative social members. Therefore, whether or interpersonal discourse metadiscourse metadiscourse have evaluated attitudes and participation interpersonal significance. On this basis, he metadiscourse divided into two major categories of communication and interaction. Communication class metadiscourse help guide readers to pay attention to the organization of discourse, including the

transition tag (transition markers), the frame marker (frame markers), back to the index record (endophoric markers), Evidentiality mark (evidentials), code-language comments (code glosses). Interactive class metadiscourse include blurred language (hedges), enhances the language (boosters), attitudes mark (attitude markers), claiming language (self mention) and interventional mark (engagement markers). Internal \ external chapter metadiscourse classification by Ifantidou (2005) raised. Internal chapter metadiscourse refers to a relationship between the different parts of the same chapter between internal; external chapter metadiscourse refer to different chapters, relations within the meaning of different authors, or at different times in the same chapter author. For each class, he listed some specific language means of expression, but also pointed out that linguistic expression is not exhaustive list.

In addition, Adel (2006) from the perspective of "Discourse world" to Metadiscourse divided into two main forms: Metadiscourse and author - reader interaction. Yuan discourse role is to guide the reader and the text in the language of the evaluation; author - reader interaction is to establish and maintain relationships with readers. In addition to metadiscourse classification, some researchers focus on metadiscourse a specific expression, such as hedges and modality markers and the like. As Vande (1985, 2002) from a functional perspective meta discourse research, analysis metadiscourse chapter function and interpersonal function; Hyand (1998, 1999, 2000, 2005) many times in recent years to explore, such as fuzzy language, enhances the language, etc. metadiscourse function in science and technology discourse and academic discourse; Hyland & Tse (2004) also devoted to punctuation, etc. play metadiscourse function; Kumpf (2000) from a visual point of view, such as the layout of typography, colors, etc. to discuss yuan discourse; Thompson (2003) investigated the tone of academic lectures as metadiscourse group chapter function.

3 元话语研究综述

国内外不少学者从各个角度对元话语进行了研究,并取得了令人瞩目的成果。国外研究方面,大致围绕以下两方面进行:(1)研究文化差异对元话语使用的影响;(2)研究元话语的使用对写作质量的影响。就第一个方面开展的实证研究如Crismore, Markkanen 和Steffensen (1993)、Bloch 和Chi (1995)、Valero -Garcés (1996)、Moreno(1997,2004)、Dahl(2004)等。其中,Crismore,Markkanen 和Steffensen(1993)比较了美国大学生和芬兰大学生在使用元话语手段方面的文化和性别的差异。他们发现芬兰学生比美国学生使用的元话语要多,男学生比女学生使用的元话语要多,两国学生使用的人际元话语都比篇章元话语多;其中,芬兰男生用的最多, 美国男生用的最少。这说明在使用元话语手段的过程中确实存在着文化和性别差异。

就第二个方面开展的实证研究如Intaraprawat(1988)、Barton(1993)、Longo(1994)、Intaraprawat 和Steffensen (1995)、Cheng 和Steffensen(1997)、Shaw 和Liu(1998)、Hewings 和Hewings(2002)等。其中, Intaraprawat 和Steffensen(1995)分析了12 名把英语作为二语的美国留学生的议论文发现,质量好的作文比质量差的作文使用更多类型的互动型元话语手段。他们认为,写作技能高的学生意识到了读者的需要,因此使用了一些元话语特征使文章更为读者接受。Cheng 和Steffensen(1997)在美国一所大学选择了两个班的学生为研究对象,来考察能否通过给学生传授元话语知识,使其在写作中学会使用元话语。研究发现,实验班学生作文的得分更高,因此他们认为,元话语的使用对提高作文

质量起着很大的作用。

国内元话语相关的实证研究主要由徐海铭(2001)、成晓光和姜晖(2004)、徐海铭和龚世莲(2006)、于建平(2007)李书仓和孙一凤等人开展。这类实证研究把中国学生作为研究对象。中国学生是在非自然环境下学习英语,并把英语作为一门外语来学习的。这就区别于母语为英语的本族学生。其中,成晓光和姜晖(2004)通过对一所师范大学英语专业三年级学生进行实验,研究元话语在英语写作中的作用。研究结果证明,讲授元话语是提高学生写作水平的一个有效方法。于建平(2007)统计了元话语在科技论文语料库中的分布情况,通过分析元话语在实现科技论文的语体特征,实现论文与作者、读者之间的互动中所发挥的作用,揭示了元话语在科技论文中的功能和应用规律,用以提高科技论文作者在英语论文写作时正确使用元话语的意识和能力,提高英语科技论文的写作和翻译质量。曹凤龙、王晓红通过对比研究中美两国大学生三十篇议论文,揭示中美两国学生写作中元话语实用的异同。中美两国学生的议论文中频繁使用元话语,以篇章标记词最多,但是中国学生由于语言水平有限,目标语输入质量不高,作文评价标准不完善等问题,在英语写作中存在过度使用“语篇连接词”的现象,而委婉语和态度标记词的使用量却少于美国学生。这在很大程度上反映了中国英语写作教学缺乏对学生建立“作者-读者”关系意识的培养,没有将读者的需求纳入到写作过程中。此外李书仓和孙一凤也指出掌握元话语和使用元话语在口语教学中应同时进行。Review of Empirical Study metadiscourse

Many scholars at home and abroad from all angles metadiscourse were studied, and achieved remarkable results. Foreign research, roughly around the following two aspects: Impact (1) study of cultural differences on metadiscourse use; affect (2) study metadiscourse quality of writing. On empirical research carried out in the first aspect as Crismore, Markkanen and Steffensen (1993), Bloch and Chi (1995), Valero -Garcés (1996), Moreno (1997,2004), Dahl (2004) and so on. Wherein, Crismore, Markkanen and Steffensen (1993) compared the differences between American culture and gender of students and university students in Finland means use of meta discourse aspects. They found that Finnish students than metadiscourse American students to be more male students than to female students metadiscourse, interpersonal metadiscourse two students more than the chapters Metadiscourse; wherein Finnish boys with the most, the United States Boys with the least. This shows that the use of meta discourse process means the existence of cultural and gender differences. The second aspect on empirical research conducted as Intaraprawat (1988), Barton (1993), Longo (1994), Intaraprawat and Steffensen (1995), Cheng and Steffensen (1997), Shaw and Liu (1998), Hewings and Hewings ( 2002). Wherein, Intaraprawat and Steffensen (1995) analyzed 12 English as a Second Language students argumentative American discovery, poor quality of good quality essay writing than to use more types of interactive elements means words. They believe that writing skills of students to realize the need for high-readers, so use a number of features to make the article more metadiscourse reader to accept. Cheng and Steffensen (1997) at a university in the United States selected two classes of students for the study, to examine whether by metadiscourse knowledge to teach students to learn to use in writing Metadiscourse. The study found that higher test score student writing class, so they think, using meta discourse to improve the quality of writing plays a big role. Empirical research relevant domestic Metadiscourse mainly by 徐海铭 (2001), as Jiang Xiaoguang and Hui (2004), 徐海铭 and 龚世莲 (2006), in Jianping (2007) Shu

warehouse and 孙一凤, who carried out. Such empirical study of the Chinese students study. Chinese students are learning English in a non-natural environment, and English as a foreign language to learn. This is different from native English speaking students the family. Among them, a Xiaoguang and Kang Hui (2004) through a third-year English major student Normal experiment to study the role metadiscourse in English Writing. Research results show that teaching is to improve students' writing metadiscourse level of an effective way. In Jianping (2007) statistics metadiscourse corpus of scientific papers in the distribution, by analyzing metadiscourse achieving stylistic characteristics of scientific papers, papers realize the role interaction with the author, the reader played in between, reveals metadiscourse functions and applications in scientific papers in the law to improve the technology used correctly metadiscourse authors at the time of writing English papers awareness and ability to improve the quality of English writing and translation of scientific papers. Caofeng Long, Wang Xiaohong comparative study by Chinese and American College Students thirty arguments, the two countries reveal students' writing metadiscourse practical similarities and differences. Chinese and American students argumentative frequently used metadiscourse to chapter Marker most, but Chinese students due to limited language skills, the target language input quality, and composition evaluation criteria imperfect, exists in English writing overuse " language

Articles conjunctions "phenomenon, and the amount of use euphemisms and word mark attitude but less than American students in large part reflects the lack of Chinese English Teaching students to build." Author - Training reader "relationship of consciousness, no will incorporate the needs of readers to the writing process. Further Shu-bin and 孙一凤 also pointed to grasp and use metadiscourse metadiscourse should be carried out simultaneously in the spoken language teaching.

Previous Studies on Metadiscourse

Metadiscourse is a hot topic in discourse analysis and great achievements have been

made both at home and abroad.

元话语在学术语篇中尤其重要,它是劝说性、报道性语篇的重要构篇机制。因为元话语手段“反映了作者对读者的理解能力、语境资源和语篇经历的认识”。(杨信彰,2008 :xi) Besides, metadiscourse is a vital component in academic discourses and persuasive reports because it reflects the author's understanding of the reader?s comprehensive capability, the context and experience of discourse. " (Yangxin Zhang, 2008: xi)

Significance of the study

1959 年Harris 提出“元话语”这个术语,指理解语言使用、表示作者或说话人引导受众理解语篇的一种方法。此后,Williams、Vande Kopple、Crismore、Hyland等多名学者对元话

语做出研究并对元话语的定义和分类提出不同的观点。同时在此基础上,还有许多学者对元话语进行实证研究。但这些研究大多数只关注元话语与写作的关系,很少关注元话语的修辞功能。

1989 年Crismore 提出话语包括两个层面,基本话语和元话语。基本话语表达关于话题的命题信息, 元话语告诉读者如何理解、评述关于话题的命题信息。基本话语实现了语言的概念功能, 元话语实现了语言的人际及语篇功能。元话语是说话人\作者用于构建连贯语篇、投射自己对命题内容或受众的态度、协调与受众之间关系的一种重要手段。同时也是连接语篇与语境的重要纽带。在交际中,说话人\作者除了传递信息、表达思想外,往往还会嵌入自己的观点.元话语同样也有修辞功能。本质上,修辞就是说服的艺术,是一种对没有正式、绝对证据的问题进行说理的活动。Aristotle 在《修辞》一书中提出三种说服手段,即气质、动情、说理。气质关注的是说话人\作者的品质与可信度;动情关注的是情感方面,聚焦在受众而不是说话人\作者的特点;而说理则与文章本身相关,如文章结构安排、长度、复杂度、论点及论据等。

In 1959, Harris proposed the term metadiscourse to refer to the way of understanding language in use, representing that authors or speakers guide receivers to perceive a text. Since then, Williams, Vande Kopple, Crismore, Hyland and many other scholars have made plenty of researches on metadiscourse and put forward different views on definitions and classifications of metadiscourse. At the same time, there are many scholars who made many empirical researches on it. But most of these studies focus on relationship between metadiscourse and writing, with little attention to the rhetorical function of metadiscourse.

In 1989, Crismore proposed discourse consists of two levels, primary discourse and metadiscourse. Primary discourse expresses the proposition information of the topic of a text, and metadiscourse tells the readers how to understand, review the proposition information on a topic. In the other words, the former implements the conceptual function of language, and metadiscourse achieves interpersonal and textual functions of language. Metadiscourse also have rhetorical function and the rhetoric is the art of persuasion, is a reasoning activity for those questions that have no formal and persuasive evidence. In "Rhetoric," Aristotle puts forward three approaches of persuasion, ethos, pathos, and logos. Ethos is concerned with the speaker \ author's quality and reliability; pathos is concerned with emotion, focusing on the characteristics of audience rather than the speaker \ author; and logos is associated with the article itself, such as the structure arrangement, length, degree of complexity , arguments of article , etc.

This thesis will analyze the political news opinion because it has always been an important column to attract people…s attention and it influences people?s life in a state or country. Besides, it is more of giving conceptions and comments than introducing facts to readers and it is persuasive in that author tries to let them think in the same way as he\she thinks and even push them to take actions. So the present study will explore the use of metadiscourse in the political news opinion and analyze how metadiscourse realize the persuasion through achieving logical appeals, credible appeals and affective appeals. Finally, the present study hopes to let writers and readers pay attention to the metadicourse in the writings and improve their writing ability.

Previous studies on Metadiscourse and News Opinion abroad and at home

1. Reviews on the definition of metadiscourse

元话语历来被认为是一个“模糊的”概念,人们简单地把元话语定义为“关于话语的话语”。(Hyland ,2005 :16) 作为引导读者理解语篇和作者态度的各种语言手段,元话语到底有没有命题意义成为研究争论的焦点。Lautamatti (1978) 把元话语看作是与语篇主题发展无关的“非话题的材料”(non-topical material) ;Williams (1981 :226) 认为它“不指向任何主题”。与他们的观点相似,Vande (1985) 把元话语定义为“不增加命题信息,只是表明作者存在的语言材料”;Crismoreet al . (1993) 发表观点,认为元话语是命题意义之外的意义,没有增加命题信息。这些观点都表明,元话语并不承载命题内容或者不给主题增加新的内容。

Metadiscourse has long been considered a vague concept, and people simply define it as "discourse about discourse." (Hyland, 2005: 16) As a linguistic mean of guiding reader to understand the whole discourse and the author's attitude, whether metadiscourse has propositional meaning becomes the focus of the research debate. Lautamatti (1978) sees metadiscourse as "non-topical linguistic material", which has nothing to do with the discourse development but is important to comprehend the whole discourse; Williams (1981: 226) considers that it does not refer to any subject. Similar to their views, Vande (1985) defines metadiscourse that it doesn?t add any propositional information, but presents the information about subject; Crismoreet al (1993) holds the view“linguistic material in texts, written or spoken, which does not add anything to the propositional content but that is intended to help the listener or reader organize, interpret and evaluate the information given”. These views all insist that metadiscourse does not carry propositional content or add new content to subject.

Ifantidou(2005) 对此发表不同意见,他认为元话语在语义层面上增加话语的命题内容,在语用层面上对于学术语篇的理解是必要的。不考虑元话语的语义和语用意义是对它的曲解。为了说明这一点,他提出了一个基于关联理论的语义-语用的描写框架,区分了关联理论中的三对概念: (1) 真值条件-非真值条件, (2) 显义-隐义, (3) 概念意义-程序意义。通过这种区分,借助大量的例句表明不同种类的元话语表达不同的意义和功能,如表达“证言”的副词allegedly , reportedly ,admittedly 等等这些词都是跟话语的真值有关,也就是说这些词是表命题的。Hyland (2005 :23) 也不同意将元话语视为独立分开的意义层,他指出“, 语篇是交际行为,而不是命题的罗列。语篇的意义依赖于命题成分和元话语成分的融合”。

对此争议,成晓光(2008 : 47) 进行了这样的评论:metadiscourse 虽不提供主要的命题信息,但它和命题信息共处同一语篇环境下,构成了语篇的修辞环境,它所关注的是作者的写作过程和读者的阐释过程。它的存在虽不增加命题内容,但对意义的构建却是必不可少的。因此我们说它是语用构件、修辞行为。

However, Ifantidou (2005) holds the opposite view, and believes that metadiscourse adds the propositional content in the semantic level of discourse and it is necessary for understanding the discourse in the pragmatic level. In other words, it is a kind of misinterpretation without considering semantic and pragmatic meaning of metadiscourse. To illustrate this point, he proposes a description framework based on Relevance Theory and distinguishes three pairs of concepts: (1) truth conditions - non-truth conditions, (2) explicature - implicature, (3) conceptual meaning - procedural meaning. With this distinction and a lot of different types of examples, he finds that metadiscourse express different meanings and functions, such as the modifications of testimony, the adverb allegedly, reportedly, admittedly, which are related with the real value of discourse, that is, these words present proposition.

Hyland (2005: 23) also believes that those metadiscourse markers cannot be separated from the propositional content and he notes that discourse is a communicative act rather than a list of

propositions and discourse meaning depends on the integration of proposition ingredient and metadiscourse component." Therefore, he defines that metadiscourse is the cover term for the self-reflective expressions used to negotiate interactional meanings in a text, assisting the writer (or speaker) to express a viewpoint and engage with readers as members of a particular community.

2. Reviews on the classification of metadiscourse

由于对元话语的性质和功能的认识差异,对元话语的分类也存在不同。迄今为止,元话语已有几种不同的分类体系(参Williams ,1981 ;Lautamatti ,1978 ;Vande ,1985 ;Crismore ,1989 ;Crismore et al ,1993 ;Hyland ,1998 ,2005) 。本研究将会主要讨论三种分法:Kopple(1985)、Crismore et al (1993)以及Hyland(2004)。

Vande Kopple(1985)基于Lautamatti和Williams对元话语的研究, 概括了7种元话语并将其分为语篇元话语和人际元话语两大类型。其中, 语篇元话语指的是在语篇中连接语篇各层次的主要成分, 组词成篇的词和短语。人际元话语主要是体现作者和读者关系的词和短语.Owing to cognitive differences in the features and functions of metadiscourse, there are various classifications. To date, there are several different metadiscourse classification systems (Williams, 1981; Lautamatti, 1978; Vande, 1985; Crismore, 1989; Crismore et al, 1993; Hyland, 1998, 2005). However, most of them are conducted under the influence of Halliday?s theory of metafunctions of language. The present study will mainly discuss three classification of Kopple (1985), Crismore et al (1993) and Hyland (2004).

Based on Williams and Lautamatti?studies of metadiscourse, Vande Kopple (1985) sums up seven kinds metadiscourse, which are finally divided into two categories, textual metadiscourse and interpersonal metadiscourse. Textual metadiscourse refers to those words and phrases to help to organize the main components of all levels of discourse to form a discourse; interpersonal metadiscourse refers to those words and phrases which mainly reflected the relationships between author and reader.

Table 2.1 Vande Kopple’s classification system for metadiscourse (cited from Hyland (2005: 32))

Category Function Examples

Textual metadiscourse Text

connectives

Show how parts of a

text are connected to

one another

sequencers (first,

next),

reminders (as I

mentioned

in Chapter 2),

topicalizers(with

regard to)

Code

glosses

Help readers grasp the

writer?s intended

meaning

mean, such as

Validity

markers

Express the writer?s

commitment to a

statement

hedges (perhaps,

might),

emphatics

(undoubtedly),

attributors (according

to)

Narrators Inform readers of the

source of information

according to Smith,

Interpersonal metadiscourse Illocution

markers

Make the discourse

act explicit at certain

point

to conclude, I

hypothesize,

to sum up, we predict Attitude

markers

Express the writer?s

attitudes

unfortunately,

interestingly,

I wish that Commentaries address readers

directly, drawing them

into an implicit

dialogue

you will certainly

agree that, you might

want to

read the third chapter

first

不难看出, VandeKopple的分类存在问题, 如, 同样是“ according to ”, 既属于归属语又属于叙说词。It is not difficult to see that there are are some problems in Vande Kopple?s classification. One problem is its multifunctionality, that is, the functions are not performed in isolation and one metadiscourse may achieve several purposes simultaneously, such as"according to", both belonging to the attributors and narrators.. Therefore, in order to solve this problem, Crismore. etal(1993) in their classification try to use a functional analysis: metadiscourse is defined according to its primary function in the context.

Crismore. etal(1993)在VandeKopple(1985)的分类基础上, 也将元话语分为两大类:语篇元话语和人际元话语。Crismoreetal的分类中去掉了叙说词一项, 将逻辑连接词、序列词、提醒词和主题词概括为语篇标记语, 同时将语码注释词和施事标记词纳入解释标记语。语篇标记语和解释标记语这一全新分法说明了元话语的语篇功能:语篇标记语帮助组织语篇, 解释标记语帮助读者解释和更好地理解作者的意图及写作策略。On the basis of Vande Kopple?classification (1985), Crismoreetal (1993) divides metadiscourse into two categories: textual metadiscourse and interpersonal metadiscourse too. However, Kopple?s classification is modified heavily by him. Crismore et al?s classification removed narrator and replace the text connectives with logical connectives. Besides, he divides the textual metadiscourse into textual markers (logical connectives, reminders, sequencers and topicalizers) and interpretive markers (codes glosses, illocution markers and announcements).serial words remind words and keywords summarized as discourse markers, while the code-words and agent Marker comments included explain markers. This new division makes a clearer explanation of the textual function of metadiscourse: textual markers help organize discourse, and interpretive markers help readers interpret and better understand the author's intention and writing strategies. For interpersonal metadiscourse, validity markers, which is a subcategory of textual metadiscourse, is now under the classification of interpersonal metadiscourse and three separate subcategories --- hedges, certainty markers, and attributors are included. Attributors are combined with narrators because both are used to inform the readers of the source of ideas.

不过, Crismore etal的这一分法也存在一些问题, 如, 将语篇元话语分为语篇标记语和解释标

记语的依据不明确, 另外, 用来指称语篇前部分所提内容的提醒词属于语篇标记语, 而用于指称语篇后部分所提内容的宣告词却又属于解释标记语, 这似乎有点牵强附会。However, some problems also exist in Crismore et al?s classification. For example, it lacks theoretical foundation to make a division of the textual metadiscourse into textual markers and interpretive. In addition, it seems a bit far-fetched that reminders, which are used to refer to the earlier text material, belong to textual markers, but announcements, which are used to refer to the upcoming material, belong to interpretive markers.

Category Function Examples

Textual metadiscourse

Textual Markers Logical

Connectives Help show

connections between

ideas

and, but, therefore

Sequencers Help show sequence

of material

first, second

Reminders Refer to earlier text

material As we saw in Chapter1

Topicalizers Indicate topic shift or

a new topic Well; now I will discuss; in regard to

Interpretive Markers Code Glosses Explain text material What I mean is , that

is, for example Illocution Markers Name the act

performed

To conclude; in sum; I

predict Announcements Announcing

upcoming material

In the next section

Interpersonal

metadiscourse

Hedges Show lack of

commitment to the

truth-value of

proposition

may, might

Certainty Markers Show full

commitment to

the truth-value of

proposition I absolutely sure I know

Attributors Refer to authorities

used for persuasive

force

Einstein claimed that

Attitude Markers Express w riter?s

affective

values

I agree, unfortunately

Commentary Build writer-reader

relationships My friend, you may not agree that

Hyland(2004)认为, 将元话语分为语篇元话语和人际元话语不太确切, 应将元话语分为指引

读者读完整个语篇的交互式元话语和帮助读者掌握论点的互动式元话。其中, 交互式元话语涉及作者对读者的意识, 以及作者对读者的知识、兴趣、修辞期望和语篇处理能力的调解, 它反映了作者组织语篇的方法, 在一定程度上体现出作者在创作语篇的过程中考虑到了读者的需求。而互动式元话语是作者通过入侵语篇和对语篇信息加以评论来引领互动展开交际的方法, 它在一定程度上体现了语篇是由作者和读者一起构建的。关于Hyland的分类模式,本文将会在theoretical basis 里详细解释。

Hyland (2004) believes that dividing metadiscourse into textual metadiscourse and interpersonal metadiscourse are not very precise, and he categorizes metadiscourse into interactive metadiscourse, which helps readers to read the entire text, and interactional metadiscourse, which involves the reader in the text. From the perspective of author, interactive metadiscourse embodies authors?awareness of readers and their adjustment of the discourse according to the readers?knowledge, interests, and discourse processing capabilities. In a word, it reflects the method of organizing discourse, and to a certain extent, it reflects that the authors take into account the needs of readers when writing. For interactional metadiscourse, authors use them to involve theirselves in the discourse and to comment on the discourse to lead interaction between authors and readers, which to some extent, reflects the discourse is constructed by the authors and readers together. About Hyland's classification, the present study will explain in detail in the theoretical basis.

3. Previous studies on metadiscourse abroad and at home

随着对元话语认识的加深,人们开始考察元话语在各种语篇体裁中的使用情况,并将研究得出的启示用于指导写作教学。这些研究大多集中于对劝说性语篇中元话语的量化研究、学生写作与元话语使用情况的调查,以及不同语言的使用者对元话语的使用情况的对比研究。

With the better understanding of metadiscourse, people starts to investigate the usage of metadiscourse in various genres of discourse, and the research results are used to guide the teaching of writing. Most of these studies focus on quantitative research on metadiscourse in the persuasion discourses, investigation of students?writing and usage of metadiscourse, as well as comparative studies on metadiscourse usage of different languages users.

鉴于元话语的功能,研究人员将元话语理论用于指导学生写作。较早进行这方面研究的有Intaraprawat & Steffensen ( 1995 ) 和Cheng & Steffensen(1996) ,这一研究是通过向学生介绍有关元话语的知识,让其理解它们的功能,培养学生在写作中建立读者意识,从而学会在写作中使用元话语。Crismoreetal(1993)通过分析美国大学生的议论文研究发现, 不同的语言体系中, 元话语的使用在密度和类型上有所不同, 作者的性别也对此有影响。研究结果显示, 在元话语的使用密度上, 芬兰学生比美国学生高。在具体类型上, 芬兰学生使用了较多的模糊限制语, 而美国学生则用了较多的语篇标记。女性作者使用了较多的态度标记, 而男性作者使用了较多的语篇标记实验表明,元话语对于提高学生的写作能力有很大帮助。在国内也进行了类此的研究。成晓光、姜峰通过对一所师范大学英语专业学生十七周的元话语写作训练发现,元话语教学能够使学生在写作时考虑到作者与读者的关系,利用元话语,结合以读者为中心的写作法、围绕着篇章内容的语言写作法,组织整个篇章。元话语有助于帮助学生在阅读时更加准确地、深刻地理解作者的意图。

Given metadiscourse?s function, the researchers use metadiscourse theory to guide the students to write. Earlier studies in this regard were conducted by Intaraprawat & Steffensen (1995) and Cheng & Steffensen (1996). This kind of studies usually introduces students to knowledge about metadiscourse, let them understand their functions, and cultivate their awareness of reader in writing, by which they will learn to use metadiscourse in writing. Crismoreetal (1993) analyzes the argumentative writings of American and Finish college students and finds that gender and

cultural difference result in the different usage of metadiscourse in terms of density and type. The analysis reveals that Finnish students and male students use more metadiscourse than U.S. students and female students respectively. Students in both countries use more interpersonal metadiscourse than textual metadiscourse with Finnish males using the most and U.S. males the least. China also makes similar studies. Xiaoguang and Jiang Feng conduct a seventeen-week writing training with useing metadiscourse for English majors in a Normal university and finds that metadiscourse teaching enable students to consider the relationship between the author and the reader and to use metadiscourse to organize the whole essay in writing.

作为一种社会行为,元话语会因社会语境的受众、目的等不同而相应变化。为此,研究人员通过建立或者使用已有语料库对元话语的使用展开了不同维度的对比,包括语类对比、学科对比、跨文化对比等等。Hyland 所做的大部分研究主要涉及不同的语类和学科中元话语的使用情况。跨文化对比的研究也取得了丰硕的成果,Crismore et al . (1993) 比较了美国和芬兰大学生元话语的使用情况。Adel (2006)借助计算机辅助,通过ICLE ( International Corpus of Learner English) 和LOCNESS(the Louvain Corpus of Native English Essays) 语料库对比,研究母语为瑞典语的英语学习者与英语本族语者在辩论语篇写作中使用元话语的异同。结果发现,L2 学习者比L1 学习者使用更多的元话语。Dafouz2Milne (2008) 从跨文化的视角对英国的《泰晤士报》The Times 和西班牙的《国家报》El Pa s 中的元话语标记语进行对比研究,通过识别新闻语篇中占据主导地位的元话语类别以及分布情况,研究它们构建和实现劝导的作用,从而发现元话语在此类语篇中的劝说机制。

Besides, as a social activity, metadiscourse will be different in different social context, with various purposes and so on. With regard to this situation, the researchers set up or use some existing corpora to make conparative studies on metadiscourse in different dimensions, including the comparative study between different genres, subjects, cultures, and so on. For Hyland, most of the researches done by him investigate the use of metadiscourse in different genres and disciplines. Besides, the comparative study on metadiscourse between cultures also makes fruitful achievements. For Crismore et al. (1993), they compare the metadiscourse usage of the United States and Finish students. Then Adel (2006) makes a comparative study with ICLE (International Corpus of Learner English) and LOCNESS (the Louvain Corpus of Native English Essays), and explores the differences and similarities of Swedish English learners and native English speakers in using metadiscourse in debate. The result shows that L2 learners use more metadiscourse than L1 learners.

What?s more, there are a few scholars who have combined the study of metadiscourse with that of persuasion. Hyland (1998) studies how metadiscourse can help create rational, credibility as well as affectiv e appeals so as to realize the persuasion of the CEOs? letters. Besides, Dafouz-Milne (2008) from the perspective of cross-cultural makes a comparative study on metadiscourse in the British The Times and Spain's National Newspaper El Pas. By identifying the dominated metadiscourse categories and their distribution in news, he explores how the metadiscoure build and implement persuasion, and finally finds metadiscourse?s persuasive mechanism in such discourse.

Previous studies on News Opinion abroad and at home

In the present study, news opinion and news commentary refer to the same genre. This part will give a brief introduction of previous studies on news opinion, especially from the perspective of metadiscourse.

Some foreign scholars have made a contribution to the study of news opinion by analyzing metadiscourse. Le (2004) makes a study of the use of metadiscourse in the elite newspaper, Le Monde and explores how metadiscourse functions to help construct editorialist?s authority. Hyland?s (1998) mode l of metadiscourse is adopted as a working framework but only three metadiscurse categories, namely, evidential, person markers and relational markers, are analyzed to serve the purpose of the study. The study finds that Le Monde?s editorialists present t hemselves as responsible representatives of public opinion. Dafouz-Milne (2008) makes a cross-linguistic study of newspaper discourse. He establishes a new mode of metadiscourse for his study by using the functional distinction of textual and interpersonal metadiscourse markers although he agrees with Hyland (2005) that all metadiscourse is interpersonal. He uses a questionnaire to investigate whether metadiscourse markers realize persuasion on a group of selected informants. Findings show that both textual and interpersonal metadiscourse markers are present in English and Spanish news columns in spite of certain variations and that both textual markers and interpersonal markers are helpful to render the text persuasive and reader-oriented. Noorian & Biria (2010) make a study on interpersonal markers (hedges, certainty markers, commentaries, attitude markers, and attributors) used by American and Iranian EFL writers by analyzing 12 opinion articles.

It is found that there are significant differences in the use of interpersonal markers especially when it comes to commentaries. It suggests that the differences result from culture, genre and Iranian EFL writers? extent of foreign language experience.

At home, Dong (2007) explores the metadiscourse usually used in Chinese news commentary and classifies it into five categories. He claims that metadiscourse has textual and interpersonal meaning. Following Dafouz-Milne (2008), Mu (2010) makes a contractive study of the use of metadiscourse in Chinese and English editorials. And Huang and Xiong (2012) make a similar contractive study but use news commentary as discourse.

From the above review, it is found that some scholars focus on the use of metadiscourse in two different languages by comparing and exploring the possible reasons contributing to the similarities and differences. And some other scholars focus on certain metadiscourse markers used in opinion articles to achieve specific study purpose. However, few study all metadiscourse markers used in news opinion articles and combine the distribution of metadiscourse markers with the persuasion function of metadiscourse. Therefore, the present study aims not only to explore what metadiscourse markers are used and the general preference in the specific use of metadiscourse, but also further study how metadiscourse markers used in economic news opinion help achieve persuasion function.

Theoretical basis

Hyland’s Model of Metadiscourse

At the begining, Hyland (1998) proposes a new model of metadiscourse in his study of academic texts following Crismore et.al.?s (1993) classification of textual metadiscourse and interpersonal metadiscourse and further classifies more specific functions within these. He makes heavy modification during analysis to accommodate the meanings expressed in academic article by eliminating formal categories and minimizing functional overlap. Textual metadiscourse refers to devices which allow the recovery of the writer?s intention by explicitly establishing preferred interpretations of propositional meanings. Interpersonal metadiscourse refers to the devices that alert readers to the author?s perspective towards both the propositional information and the readers themselves, thus contributing to a writer-reader relationship and anticipating the subjective negotiability of statements.

However, when Hyland (1998a, 1999) applies his model of metadiscourse (1998a) to his analyses of research articles and introductory course books, he finds that there is still overlap among these categories and writers frequently seek to achieve several purposes. For example, the use of connections between arguments is always related to the writer?s awareness of the reader?s likely responses. According to Hyland (2005) the textual metadiscourse is seen as an element of the writer?s interpersonal decisions to highlight certain relationships with the reader and guide the reader through the writer?s preferred interpretations. Therefore, both textual and interpersonal metadiscourse convey interpersonal meaning of a text. By borrowing Tompson?s (2003) notion of interactive and interactional resources, Hyland (2005) proposes an interpersonal model of metadiscourse in detail. He substitutes textual metadiscourse and interpersonal metadiscourse in his classification of metadiscourse in 1998 with interactive and interactional respectively. What is more, some terms for subcategories are also changed. He changes logical connectives into transitions, emphatics into boosters, person markers into self mentions, and relational markers into engagement markers respectively.

Table 3.1 below shows his new model of metadiscourse.

Category Function Examples

Interactive metadiscourse Help to guide the reader through the text

Transitions express relations between

main clause

in addition; but; thus; and

Frame markers refer to discourse acts,

sequences or stages finally; to conclude; my purpose is

Endophoric markers refer to information in

other parts of the text noted above; see Fig; in section2

Evidentials refer to information in

other parts of the text

according to X; Z states

Code glosses elaborate propositional

meanings namely; e.g.; such as; in other words

Interactional

metadiscourse

Involve the reader in the text

Hedges withhold commitment and

open dialogue might; perhaps; possible; about

Boosters emphasize certainty or close

dialogue in fact; definitely; it is clear that

Attitude markers express writer?s attitude to

proposition unfortunately; I agree; surprisingly

Self mentions explicit reference to

author(s)

I; we; my; me; our

Engagement markers explicitly build

relationship with reader consider; note; you can see that

文本交互型元话语(interactive metadiscourse):指能把语篇内部命题联系起来,或者同其他语篇联系起来,从而形成连贯语篇的那些语言成分。其主要功能是引导读者对语篇的理解:作者注意到读者的存在,并根据对读者知识的评估,试图调整其组织篇章的方式,满足读者的需求,读者借助这些特征以达到作者所期望的解释。这一类型的元话语包括话语组织的方式。它可分成5小类:

Hyland?s interpersonal model of classification divides metadiscourse into two categories: interactive metadiscourse and interactional metadiscourse.

Interactive metadiscourse refers to those linguistic elements that can link the internal discourse propositions, or link with other discourses to form a coherent discourse. Its main function is to guide the reader's understanding of the discourse as a whole. It concerns the author?s awareness of potential readers and the way he or she try to adjust discourse?s organization to accommodate their knowledge, interests, rhetorical expectations and processing abilities. It reflects author?s assessment of readers so as to create coherent and convincing discourse. It can be divided into five categories:

Transition markers:Transition markers which are mainly conjunctions and adverbial phrases show up the various relationships between sentences..They must perform an internal role to the discourse by making additive (e.g. and, furthermore), causative (e.g. therefore, consequently) and contrastive (e.g. similarly, in contrastive) relations, as opposed to the external world.

Frame markers:标示语篇的语式结构的成分,其功能为构架语篇中的各种成分以形成清晰的语篇框架,帮助读者掌握语篇内部的组织。They are components to identity the structure of discourse, and their function is to signal text boundaries or elements of schematic text structure to help the reader master the internal organization of discourse, such as to clearly point out the sequence (e.g. first, next), to label text stages (e.g. to summarize, in sum), to announce discourse goals (e.g. my purpose is, the paper proposes) and to indicate topic shift (e.g. let?s return to, n ow).

Endophoric markers:标示语篇中的某个成分跟语篇的其他部分之间的一种相互照应的关系,其作用在于通过两个部分内容的对比和理解,使某些概念信息突出,以利读者更易理解作者的用意,并且可作为支撑论辩的手段,引导读者趋向于与作者相同的阐释(E.g. as noted above, refer to the next section). Endophoric markers refer to the other parts of the text, which are helpful for the re ader?s comprehensio n of the author?s intention and support arguments by referring to earlier materials or something yet to come.(E.g. as noted above, refer to the next section) Evidentials:标示来自其他渊源的观点,即指来自其他语篇的信息,主要功能在于引导读者的理解并且建立作者对信息的控制。在学术语篇中,主要是指来自同类其他文献的资料,可用于支持作者的论证Evidentials refer to information from other texts, and their the main function is to distinguish who is responsible for an argument therefore may contribute to a persuasive goal. (E.g. according to X, Z states)

Code glosses:指通过重述、解释和详述已有的信息来进一步加强表达,目的是确保读者能够明白作者的意图,这同时反映了作者对读者知识的预测。Code glosses refers to the additional information through rephrasing, interpreting and explaining existing information, ensuring that the reader can understand the author's intention, which reflects the author's forecast for the reader?s knowledge at the same time. (https://www.sodocs.net/doc/f01671388.html,ly, e.g.,such as,in other words,that is,for example) 2)人际互动型元话语(intheractional metadiscourse):指那些能表明发话者对命题信息或受话者的态度或观点的语言成分,其主要功能在于吸引读者的注意力。人际互动型元话语涉及到作者通过介入和评价语篇中的信息来实现与读者的互动。作者的目的在于使其观点明晰,并吸引读者对语篇作出反应,进而参与到语篇意义的构建。这是作者的语篇“声音”的表达,或者社区认可的性格的表达,并且包括作者表达判断的方式以及明显地使自己与读者达成认同。这里的元话语从本质上来说是评估性的、参与性的,表达作者的态度,显示读者的参与程度。此类元话语又可分成5小类:Intheractional metadiscourse refers to those linguistic elements that can show author?s attitude and viewpoint toward readers and subject. It concerns the ways the writer intrudes into the text expressing his or her view to propositional information as well as engaging with the reader. Metadiscourse here is to control the level of personality and build an appropriate relationship to his or her arguments and audience. Such metadiscourse can be divided into 5 categories:

Hedges:抑制承诺,以开放式对话显现作者认同不同的声音和观点,控制对命题的过分参与。它可通过将命题显现为一个可协商的观点而不是事实来标示信息的主观性。作者必须计算给于一个判断多大的分量,考虑精确与可靠性的程度,使其可以保护作者。因而,模糊词的使用意味着一个陈述不是基于肯定的知识而是基于作者的可能的推理Hedges indicate the author?s reluctan ce to hold full commitment to a proposition. In other words, the author admits that there are other views concerning the proposition. (E.g. perhaps, possibly)。

Boosters:强调肯定性,以封闭式对话表达作者对自己锁住内容的肯定,表现作者对自己观点的自信,同时吸引读者站到自己一边共同应对其他声音,加强论辩。模糊词与强调词的平衡运用可显示在多大程度上作者愿意接受其他观点,因此在表达对语篇内容的参与和对读者的尊重上起了重要的作用。

Boosters are opposed to hedges, and they show the author?s certainty and confidence in the argument so as to hold full commitment to a proposition. (E.g. clearly, obviously, it is clear that, definitely, in fact).

Attitude markers:Attitude markers show author?s attitude toward the proposition like surprise, agreement, obligation, importance and frustration They are signaled by attitude verbs (e.g. agree, prefer), sentence adverbs (e.g. unfortunately, surprisingly) and adjectives (remarkable).

Self mentions:明显地指涉作者自身,主要是通过运用第一人称代词及其变化形式。所有的写作都带有关于作者的信息,作者不能避免投射自己的形象,不能避免显现他与其论辩观点、社区和读者之间的关系,因此,作者自我指涉的使用与否是作者的一种有意识的选择,用于显示其特定的立场和处于某一语境的作者身份Self mentions indicate the presence of the author through first-person pronouns and possessive adjectives. (E.g. I, mine, exclusive we, our, ours). Engagement markers:明显地建立与读者的关系,用于直接地与读者交流,目的在于聚焦读者的注意力或者将他们视作语篇的参与者,与读者建立某种直接的关系。Engagement markers are used to clearly establish a relationship with the readers and to communicate directly with readers, aiming to attract their attention or to involve them as participants. This kind of markers include second person pronouns (e.g. you, your, inclusive we), interjections (e.g. by the way, you may notice), questions and directives (e.g. note, consider) as well as obligation modals (e.g. should, must).

Three Means of Persuasion

在西方古典修辞学中,人文传统地位突出。人文传统强调人既是理性的,又是政治性的,只有通过说理和辩论才能达到劝说他人做出某种反应的目的。古希腊修辞学主要研究演说和论辩。亚里士多德在《修辞学》中就如何取得说服成功作了较为全面系统的阐述。他认为演说取得成功有三种基本的说服方式:人品诉诸(ethos)、理性诉诸(logos)和情感诉诸(pathos)。人品诉诸指修辞者的道德品质与人格威信;理性诉诸指言语本身内在的逻辑论证和言语表达技巧,涉及演讲者论辩及组织材料的合理性;情感诉诸指通过对受众心理的了解,将听众置于一种合适的心态之中,诉诸他们的感情。

In Western classical rhetoric, the humanistic tradition possesses a prominent position. Humanistic tradition emphasizes that people are not only rational but also of a political nature, and they can achieve the purpose of persuading others to make some response only through reasoning and debate. So Ancient Greek rhetoric mainly studies how to make successful speeches and debate. In Rhetoric, Aristotle explains how to achieve successful persuasion in a comprehensive way. He believes that, there are three basic ways to persuade: ethos, logos and pathos. Ethos refers to the moral quality and personal prestige of author; logos means internal logic reasoning and verbal presentation skills of discourse itself, involving author?s rational debate and organization of materials; pathos requires that the author first understands readers?psychological character and then places them placed in an appropriate state of mind to let them express their feelings.

个人品格被亚里士多德称为“最有效的说服手段”。品格对于说服几乎可以说是起支配作用,它起到先入为主的积极作用。品格是发话者本身产生的力量,可以是名声、头衔、介绍,或是成果、荣誉等。发话者要想达到劝说的目的,“除了设法使受众成员进入最有利于说服工作获得成功的感情状态以及向他们‘摆事实,讲道理’之外,还必须展示出一种能赢得他们尊重和信赖,对他们具有感召力的人格,并利用这一人格所具有的威信来影响他们的决定”(刘亚猛2004:165)。因此,通过文本本身使受话者感受到发话者的人格魅力是有力的劝说方式。

Ethos is regarded as the most effective means of persuasion by Aristotle and he believes that it can almost play a dominant role in persuading and it gives a strongest impression of discourse on readers before they really entry into it. In fact, ethos is the power of the author itself, which can be fame, title, description, achievements, honor and so on. So in order to achieve persuasion, in addition to trying to convince readers through presenting the facts and reasoning things out and

place them in a appropriate state of mind where they are persuaded easiest, the author must win their respect and reliance through showing his\ her ethos, and use it to influence their decisions. "(Liu YaMeng 2004: 165). However, at most cases, the author has to rebuild it during the development of the discourse. Hyland(2005: 64) mentions that “we do not see ethos as a static quality or as an attribution of a person, but as the dynamic and interpretive result of the interaction between the writer and the reader through the text itself."

理性诉诸是通过逻辑论证对受众的诉诸,即作者运用逻辑推理让读者理解或接受其观点。理性是任何劝说的生命力,缺乏理性的表达就没有存在的意义。发话者必须运用逻辑论证和合适的言语表达技巧来“以理服人”,让受话者心服口服地接受发话者的立场和价值观念,这是一个发话者用理性劝说将逻辑信念转变成受话者的感情认同的过程。

Logos is that the author allows readers to understand or accept his\ her point of view through logical reasoning. As Hyland (2005:65) points out, logos concern the speech itself, its arrangement, length, complexity, types of evidence and arguments and so on. The persuasiveness of a text depends much on reasoning and logic.

情感诉诸即我们通常所说的“动之以情”,是调动受众感情以产生说服的效力。通过研究受话者的心理及情感,从而选择适当的感情诉诸手段来引起态度、观点或感情的改变。例如通过带倾向性或暗示性的语句去引导受话者。一个善于遣词造句的发话者正是通过注重那些传递感情的细节描写,来增强其劝说过程中感情的影响力,从而抓住受话者的感情。

In addition to logos and ethos, there is another important means of persuasion: pathos, which appeals to the reader?s emotions. Pathos promotes affective appeals when the discourse signals consideration for the reader?s point or that the discourse has direct connection to the reader. Therefore, pathos pays attention to the characteristic of the reader rather than the author, considering the background knowledge, educational level, interests, and community and so on. The affective appeals not only cause the reader to respond emotionally by engaging the reader into the discourse but also influence the reader?s viewpoint by making the reader to accept what the author thinks.

Research content

Research method

Research questions:

(1) What metadiscourse markers are used in political news opinion?

(2) What is the general preference in use of metadiscourse markers in political news opinion?

(3) How do metadiscourse markers help realize persuasion function in terms of logos, pathos and ethos in political news opinion respectively?

Data collection and analysis

1. The political news opinions collection.

多种类型词语大全

小学生ABCC 等多种类型词语大全 ABCC 想入非非、兴致勃勃、无所事事、白发苍苍、生机勃勃、得意洋洋、大腹便便、气势汹汹、两手空空、喜气洋洋、气喘吁吁、人才济济、 喜气洋洋、大腹便便、神采奕y ì奕y ì 、怒气冲冲、衣冠楚楚、可怜兮兮、波光粼l ín 粼l ín 、白雪皑ái 皑ái 、金光闪闪、白发苍苍、风尘仆仆、小心翼翼、千里迢ti áo 迢ti áo 、沧海茫茫、阴风阵阵、忧心忡忡、劣迹斑斑、硕果累累、信誓旦旦、野心勃勃、逃之夭夭、风度翩翩、疑虑重重、来势汹汹、 形色匆匆、忠心耿耿、相貌堂堂、忧心忡ch ōng 忡、春风习习、文质彬彬、凉风习习、得意洋洋、信誓旦旦、炊烟袅袅、兴致勃勃、大名鼎鼎、生机勃勃、财源滚滚 ABAB 动作 说道说道、打扫打扫、打扮打扮、清醒清醒、搅和搅和、拨拉拨拉、商量商量、研究研究、乐呵乐呵、锻炼锻炼、琢磨琢磨、考虑考虑、 教育教育、教训教训、活动活动、比划比划、练习练习、切磋c u ō 切磋、糊h ù弄nong 糊弄、考验考验、学习学习、比试比试 颜色

瓦蓝瓦蓝、乌黑乌黑、雪白雪白、漆黑漆黑、火红火红、金黄金黄 声音 呼h ū噜l u 呼噜、淅x ī沥l ì淅沥、哗啦哗啦、叮咚叮咚、嘀嗒嘀嗒、咕g ū嘟d ū 咕嘟、哐ku āng 当d āng 哐当 ABB 白花花、白晃晃、白皑ái 皑ái 、白茫茫、白胖胖、黑洞洞、黑漆漆、 黑乎乎、黑压压、黑黝y ǒu 黝y ǒu 、红通通、红扑扑、红彤彤、红艳艳、 懒洋洋、绿油油、黄澄ch ?ng 澄ch ?ng 、金灿灿、羞答答、笑哈哈、笑眯眯、笑吟吟、笑嘻嘻、笑盈盈、喜洋洋、喜滋滋、乐呵呵、兴冲冲、气乎乎、汗津津、光秃秃、毛茸茸、阴沉沉、亮晶晶、亮堂堂、 水灵灵、水汪汪、硬梆梆、凉飕s ōu 飕s ōu 、暖烘烘、暖洋洋、冷冰冰、热腾腾、热乎乎、傻乎乎、胖乎乎、沉甸甸、轻飘飘、急匆匆、慢吞吞、慢腾腾、干巴巴、湿漉漉、蓬松松、甜蜜蜜、圆溜溜、滴溜溜、酸溜溜、香喷喷、脏兮兮、乱糟糟、静悄悄、恶狠狠 AABC 楚楚动人、楚楚可怜、草草了事、草草收兵、步步为营、步步高升、 步步登高、比比皆是、勃勃生机、彬彬有礼、咄d u ō咄d u ō 逼人、咄咄怪事、 鼎鼎大名、鼎鼎有名、喋d i ?喋d i ? 不休、代代相传、多多益善、泛泛而谈、 泛泛之交、愤f an 愤f an 不平、忿f an 忿f an 不平、格格不纳、格格不入、格格不吐、官官相护、耿耿于怀、耿耿于心、呱呱坠地、高高在上、井井有条、

四字词语分类大全

四字词语分类大全 ABB 白花花、白晃晃、白皑皑、白茫茫、白胖胖、黑洞洞、黑漆漆、黑乎乎、黑压压、黑黝黝、红通通、红扑扑、红彤彤、红艳艳、懒洋洋、绿油油、黄澄澄、金灿灿、羞答答、清凌凌、笑哈哈、笑眯眯、笑吟吟、笑嘻嘻、笑盈盈、喜洋洋、喜滋滋、乐呵呵、兴冲冲、气乎乎、汗津津、光秃秃、毛茸茸、阴沉沉、亮晶晶、亮堂堂、水灵灵、水汪汪、硬梆梆、凉飕飕、暖烘烘、暖洋洋、冷冰冰、热腾腾、热乎乎、傻乎乎、胖乎乎、沉甸甸、轻飘飘、急匆匆、慢吞吞、慢腾腾、干巴巴、湿漉漉、蓬松松、甜蜜蜜、圆溜溜、滴溜溜、酸溜溜、香喷喷、脏兮兮、乱糟糟、静悄悄、恶狠狠 ABAB 动作: 说道说道、打扫打扫、溜达溜达、打扮打扮、清醒清醒、搅和搅和、拨拉拨拉、商量商量、研究研究、乐呵乐呵、锻炼锻炼、琢磨琢磨、考虑考虑、教育教育、教训教训、活动活动、比划比划、练习练习、切磋切磋、糊弄糊弄、考验考验、学习学习、比试比试 颜色:瓦蓝瓦蓝、乌黑乌黑、雪白雪白、漆黑漆黑 声音:呼噜呼噜、淅沥淅沥、哗啦哗啦、叮咚叮咚、嘀嗒嘀嗒、咕嘟咕嘟、哐当哐当 ABCC 人才济济、喜气洋洋、大腹便便、得意洋洋、神采奕奕、怒气冲冲、衣冠楚楚、可怜兮兮、微波粼粼、波光粼粼、白雪皑皑、金光闪闪、白发苍苍、风尘仆仆、小心翼翼、千里迢迢、沧海茫茫、阴风阵阵、忧心忡忡、劣迹斑斑、硕果累累、信誓旦旦、野心勃勃、逃之夭夭、风度翩翩、疑虑重重、来势汹汹、形色匆匆、忠心耿耿、流水淙淙、大雪纷纷、相貌堂堂、忠心耿耿、雾气腾腾、忧心忡忡、春风习习、文质彬彬、凉风习习、晚风习习、秋风习习、得意洋洋、信誓旦旦、炊烟袅袅、兴致勃勃、北风呼呼、热气袅袅、大名鼎鼎、生机勃勃、财源滚滚AABC A:嗷嗷待哺、昂昂自若、哀哀父母、哀哀欲绝 C:楚楚动人、楚楚可人、楚楚有致、楚楚可怜、楚楚作态、楚楚不凡、楚楚可爱、草草了事、草草收兵、察察为明、察察而明、超超玄著、超超玄箸、迟迟吾行、陈陈相因、蠢蠢欲动、绰绰有余、刺刺不休、侈侈不休、蹙蹙靡骋 B:步步为营、步步高升、步步登高、比比皆是、勃勃生机、彬彬有礼、 D:咄咄逼人、咄咄怪事、咄咄书空、鼎鼎大名、鼎鼎有名、喋喋不休、代代相传、多多益办、点点星光、旦旦而伐 E:恩恩相报 F:泛泛而谈、泛泛之交、泛泛之人、泛泛之谈、愤愤不平、忿忿不平、纷纷不一G:格格不纳、格格不入、格格不吐、官官相护、官官相为、官官相卫、耿耿于怀、耿耿于心、呱呱坠地、呱呱堕地、衮衮诸公、高高在上 H:花花世界、花花公子、花花太岁、赫赫之功、赫赫之光、赫赫有名、行行蛇

分类英语单词大全精心整理版

一、学习用品 (school things) pen钢笔 pencil铅笔 pencil-case铅笔盒 ruler尺子 book书 bag包comic book漫画书 post card明信片 newspaper报纸 schoolbag书包 eraser橡皮 crayon蜡笔 sharpener卷笔刀 story-book故事书 notebook笔记本 Chinese book语文书 English book英语书 math book数学书 magazine杂志 dictionary词典 二、人体(body)foot脚 head头 face脸 hair头发nose鼻子 mouth嘴 eye眼睛 ear耳朵 arm手臂 hand手 finger手指 leg腿 tail尾巴 三、颜色(colours)red红 blue蓝 yellow黄green绿 white白 black黑 pink粉红 purple紫 orange橙 brown棕 grey 灰 四、动物(animals)cat猫 dog狗 pig猪 duck鸭 rabbit兔 horse马 elephant大象 ant蚂蚁 fish鱼 bird鸟 eagle鹰 beaver海狸 snake蛇mouse老鼠 squirrel松鼠 kangaroo袋鼠 monkey猴 panda熊猫 bear熊 lion狮子 tiger老虎 fox狐狸 zebra斑马 deer鹿 giraffe长颈鹿 goose鹅 hen母鸡 turkey火鸡 lamb小羊 sheep绵羊 goat山羊 cow奶牛 donkey驴 squid鱿鱼 lobster龙虾 shark鲨鱼 seal海豹 sperm whale抹香鲸 killer whale虎鲸

考研英语词汇分类总结

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7.表示秋的成语 秋高气爽、五谷丰登、天高云淡红叶似火、金风送爽、硕果累累8.表示冬的成语 三九严寒、天寒地冻、雪花飞舞寒冬腊月、千里冰封、滴水成冰9.带有人体器官或部位名称的词语头重脚轻、指手画脚、愁眉苦脸心明眼亮、目瞪口呆、张口结舌交头接耳、眼疾手快、昂首挺胸心灵手巧、摩肩接踵 10.数字开头的成语 一开头 一去不返、一蹶不振、一言不发一字不漏、一文不值、一毛不拔一尘不染、一成不变、一窍不通一丝不苟、一病不起、一声不响一声不吭、一丝不挂 百开头 百发百中、百折不挠、百废待兴百尺竿头、百家争鸣、百花齐放百废待兴、百年大计、百年好合千开头 千辛万苦、千军万马、千变万化千丝万缕、千头万绪、千言万语千山万水、千呼万唤、千差万别千真万确、千叮万嘱、千刀万剐千秋万代、千家万户、千锤百炼千依百顺、千峰百嶂、千方百计千疮百孔、千娇百媚、千奇百怪千回百转、千姿百态 11.带有颜色的词语金灿灿、黄澄澄、绿莹莹、红彤彤红艳艳、红通通、红扑扑、红殷殷白茫茫、白花花、白胖胖、白皑皑白晃晃、白嫩嫩、黑乎乎、黑压压黑麻麻、黑洞洞、黑漆漆、黑黝黝12.表示颜色多的成语 五颜六色、五彩缤纷、五光十色万紫千红、绚丽多彩、色彩斑斓13.表示形态多的成语 千姿百态、千姿万状、姿态万千形态多样、形态不一、绰约多姿14.表示数量多的成语 不胜枚举、数不胜数、不可胜数数以万计、不计其数、成千上万成群结队、人山人海、排山倒海琳琅满目、车水马龙、铺天盖地满山遍野 15.形容数量少的成语: 绝无仅有、独一无二、沧海一粟寥寥无几、凤毛麟角、盖世无双16.表示变化快的成语 变化多端、变幻莫测、千变万化瞬息万变、昙花一现、稍纵即逝一弹指顷 17.表示速度快的成语 一泻千里、一目十行、快如闪电移步换影、健步如飞、风驰电掣眼疾手快、白驹过隙、快马加鞭大步流星、一目十行、一日千里昙花一现 18.表示时间快的成语 光阴似箭、日月如梭、岁月如梭

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小学语文词语分类大全

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2019年小升初英语词汇分类表总结归纳

2019年小升初英语词汇分类表总结归纳

时间类 Year [ ji?] 年hour ['au?] 时month [m?nθ]月minute ['minit] 分Day [dei] 日second ['sek?nd] 秒week [wi:k] 周today [t?'dei] 今天quarter ['kw?:t?] 刻tomorrow [t?'m?r?u] 明天 morning [m?:ni?]a 上午noon [nu:n] 中午evening [i:vni?]傍晚night [nait] 夜晚spring [spri?]春autumn ['?:t?m] 秋summer ['s?m?] 夏winter ['wint?] 冬January ['d??nju?ri] 一月July [d?u(:)'lai] 七月February ['febru?ri] 二月August ['?:g?st] 八月March [ma:t?] 三月September [s?p'temb?] 九月April ['eipr?l] 四月October [?k't?ub?] 十月May [mei;] 五月November [n?u'vemb?] 十一月June [d?u:n] 六月December [di'semb?] 十二月Monday ['m?ndi] 星期一Friday ['fraidi] 星期五Tuesday ['tju:zdi] 星期二Saturday ['s?t?di] 星期六Wednesday ['wenzde?] 星期三Sunday ['s?ndi] 星期天

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词语归类大全 1.表示“看”的字词:瞥、瞅、望、瞄、瞪、盯、观察、凝视、注视、扫视、环视、看望、探望、仰望、远望、眺望、瞭望、俯视、鸟瞰、俯瞰、 瞻仰 2、表示“说”的字词:讲、曰、讨论、议论、谈论、交流、交谈 3、表示“叫”的字词:嚷、吼、嚎、啼、鸣、嘶、嘶叫、嚎叫、叫嚷 4.表示“第一”的字词:首元甲子首先冠军魁首首屈一指名列前茅 5.象声词(表示声音的):吱呀、喀嚓、扑哧、哗啦、沙沙、咕咚、叮当、咕噜、 嗖嗖、唧唧喳喳、叽叽喳喳、轰轰隆隆、叮叮当当、 叮叮咚咚、哗哗啦啦 6.表示“春”的成语:鸟语花香、春暖花开、阳春三月、万物复苏、春风轻拂、 春光明媚、争奇斗艳、春意盎然、莺歌艳舞、桃红柳绿、 百花争艳、春色满园 7.表示“夏”的成语:烈日当空、暑气逼人、大汗淋漓、挥汗如雨、热不可耐、 夏日炎炎、酷热难忍、闷热难当、热浪滚滚、郁热沉闷、 烈日灼灼、大汗涔涔、烈焰升腾、 8.表示“秋”的成语:秋高气爽、五谷丰登、万花凋谢、天高云淡、落叶沙沙、 中秋月圆、落叶知秋、一叶知秋 9.表示“冬”的成语:三九严寒、天寒地冻、雪花飞舞、寒冬腊月、千里冰封、 滴水成冰、山寒水冷 10.带有“人体器官或部位名称”的词语: 头重脚轻、指手画脚、愁眉苦脸、心明眼亮、目瞪口呆、张口结舌、交头接耳、 面黄肌瘦、眼明手快、眼高手低、昂首挺胸、心灵手巧、摩拳擦掌、摩肩接踵 11.带有“动物名称”的成语: 鼠目寸光、谈虎色变、兔死狐悲、龙马精神、杯弓蛇影、门口罗雀、管中窥豹、马到成功、与虎谋皮、亡羊补牢、雄狮猛虎、鹤立鸡群、狗急跳墙、叶公好龙、胆小如鼠、打草惊蛇、鸡飞蛋打、指鹿为马、顺手牵羊、对牛弹琴、鸟语花香、虎背熊腰、杀鸡儆猴、莺歌燕舞、鸦雀无声、鱼目混珠、鱼龙混杂、龙争虎斗、出生牛犊、望女成凤、望子成龙、狗尾续貂、

(完整word版)词语归类大全

小学生词语分类大全 1.表示“看”的字词:瞥、瞅、望、瞄、瞪、盯、观察、凝视、注视、看望、探望、瞻仰、扫视、环视、仰望、俯视、鸟瞰、俯瞰、远望、眺望、了望 2.表示“说”的字词:讲、曰、讨论、议论、谈论、交流、交谈 3.表示“叫”的字词:嚷、吼、嚎、啼、鸣、嘶、嘶叫、嚎叫、叫嚷 4.表示“第一”的字词:首、元、甲、子、首先、冠军、魁首、首屈一指、名列前茅5.象声词(表示声音的):吱呀、喀嚓、扑哧、哗啦、沙沙、咕咚、叮当、咕噜、嗖嗖、唧唧喳喳、叽叽喳喳、轰轰隆隆、叮叮当当、叮叮咚咚、哗哗啦啦 6.表示春的成语:鸟语花香、春暖花开、阳春三月、万物复苏、春风轻拂、春光明媚7.表示夏的成语:烈日当空、暑气逼人、大汗淋漓、挥汗如雨、乌云翻滚、热不可耐8.表示秋的成语:秋高气爽、五谷丰登、万花凋谢、天高云淡、落叶沙沙、中秋月圆9.表示冬的成语:三九严寒、天寒地冻、雪花飞舞、寒冬腊月、千里冰封、滴水成冰10.带有人体器官或部位名称的词语:头重脚轻、指手画脚、愁眉苦脸、心明眼亮、目瞪口呆、张口结舌、交头接耳、面黄肌瘦、眼明手快、眼高手低、昂首挺胸、心灵手巧、摩拳擦掌、摩肩接踵 11.带有动物名称的成语:鼠目寸光、谈虎色变、兔死狐悲、龙马精神、杯弓蛇影、马到成功、与虎谋皮、亡羊补牢、雄狮猛虎、鹤立鸡群、狗急跳墙、叶公好龙、声名狼籍、狐假虎威、画蛇添足、九牛一毛、鸡犬不宁、一箭双雕、惊弓之鸟、胆小如鼠、打草惊蛇、鸡飞蛋打、指鹿为马、顺手牵羊、对牛弹琴、鸟语花香、虎背熊腰、杀鸡儆猴、莺歌燕舞、鸦雀无声、鱼目混珠、鱼龙混杂、龙争虎斗、出生牛犊、望女成凤、望子成龙、狗尾续貂、爱屋及乌、螳臂当车、蛛丝马迹、投鼠忌器、门口罗雀、管中窥豹 (带有“马”的词语:马不停蹄、马到成功、龙马精神、马失前蹄、指鹿为马、一马当先)(带有“鸡”的词语:闻鸡起舞、雄鸡报晓、鹤立鸡群、杀鸡取卵、鸡犬不宁、鸡飞蛋打、鸡毛蒜皮) (带有“牛”的成语:小试牛刀、九牛一毛、牛头马面、牛鬼蛇神、牛马不如、牛角挂书、牛毛细雨、如牛负重、风马牛不相及、初生牛犊不怕虎、九牛二虎之力) 12.数字开头的成语:一诺千金、一鸣惊人、一马当先、一触即发、一气呵成、一丝不苟、

小学生词语分类大全超强总结

小学生词语分类大全默认分类 1.表示“看”的字词:瞥、瞅、望、瞄、瞪、盯、观察、凝视、注视、看望、探望、瞻仰、扫视、环视、仰望、俯视、鸟瞰、俯瞰、远望、眺望、了望 2.表示“说”的字词:讲、曰、讨论、议论、谈论、交流、交谈 3.表示“叫”的字词:嚷、吼、嚎、啼、鸣、嘶、嘶叫、嚎叫、叫嚷4.表示“第一”的字词:首、元、甲、子、首先、冠军、魁首、首屈一指、名列前茅 5.象声词(表示声音的):吱呀、喀嚓、扑哧、哗啦、沙沙、咕咚、叮当、咕噜、嗖嗖、唧唧喳喳、叽叽喳喳、轰轰隆隆、叮叮当当、叮叮咚咚、哗哗啦啦 6.表示春的成语:鸟语花香、 春暖花开、阳春三月、万物复苏、春风轻拂、春光明媚 7.表示夏的成语:烈日当空、 暑气逼人、大汗淋漓、挥汗如雨、乌云翻滚、热不可耐 8.表示秋的成语:秋高气爽、 五谷丰登、万花凋谢、天高云淡、落叶沙沙、中秋月圆 9.表示冬的成语:三九严寒、 天寒地冻、雪花飞舞、寒冬腊月、千里冰封、滴水成冰 10.带有人体器官或部位名称的词语:头重脚轻、指手画脚、 愁眉苦脸、心明眼亮、目瞪口呆、张口结舌、交头接耳、面黄肌瘦、眼明手快、眼高手低、昂首挺胸、心灵手巧、摩拳擦掌、摩肩接踵 11.带有动物名称的成语:

与虎谋皮、亡羊补牢、雄狮猛虎、鹤立鸡群、狗急跳墙、叶公好龙、声名狼籍、狐假虎威、画蛇添足、九牛一毛、鸡犬不宁、一箭双雕、惊弓之鸟、胆小如鼠、打草惊蛇、鸡飞蛋打、指鹿为马、顺手牵羊、对牛弹琴、鸟语花香、虎背熊腰、杀鸡儆猴、莺歌燕舞、鸦雀无声、鱼目混珠、鱼龙混杂、龙争虎斗、出生牛犊、望女成凤、望子成龙、狗尾续貂、爱屋及乌、螳臂当车、蛛丝马迹、投鼠忌器、门口罗雀、管中窥豹 (带有“马”的词语:马不停蹄、马到成功、龙马精神、马失前蹄、指鹿为马、一马当先) (带有“鸡”的词语:闻鸡起舞、雄鸡报晓、鹤立鸡群、杀鸡取卵、鸡犬不宁、鸡飞蛋打、鸡毛蒜皮) (带有“牛”的成语:小试牛刀、九牛一毛、牛头马面、牛鬼蛇神、牛马不如、牛角挂书、牛毛细雨、如牛负重、风马牛不相及、 初生牛犊不怕虎、九牛二虎之力) 12.数字开头的成语:一诺千金、一鸣惊人、一马当先、一触即发、一气呵成、一丝不苟、一言九鼎、一日三秋、一落千丈、一字千金、 一本万利、一手遮天、一文不值、一贫如洗、一身是胆、一毛不拔二三其德、两面三刀、两肋插刀、两败俱伤、两情相悦、两袖清风、 两全其美、三生有幸、三思而行、三令五申、三头六臂、三更半夜、三顾茅庐、四面楚歌、四面八方、四海为家、四通八达、四平八稳、 四分五裂、五大三粗、五光十色、五花八门、五体投地、五谷丰登、五彩缤纷、五湖四海、六神无主、六根清净、六道轮回、六亲不认、 七零八落、七嘴八舌、七高八低、七窍生烟、七上八下、七折八扣、七拼八凑、八面玲珑、八面威风、八仙过海,各显神通、九霄云外、

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