语言学导论 语言学教程修订版 胡壮麟

An Introduction to Linguistics语言学导论

胡壮麟主编《语言学教程》（修订版）北京：北京大学出版社2001年

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics

1.1Why study language?

●Languages are the best mirror of the human mind. --Leibniz(莱布尼兹1646-1716)

psychology mind/brain pedagogy cognitive science

●The three basic questions that concern Chomsky are:

(i) What constitutes knowledge of language?

(ii) How is knowledge of language acquired?

(iii) How is knowledge of language put to use?

1.2What is language?

●Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas,

emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. – Sapir（萨丕尔1884-1939)

●Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

-- Wardhaugh（沃道）

● A language is a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and

constructed out of a finite set of elements. – Chomsky（乔姆斯基1928 -）● A language is a system for meanings. – Halliday（韩礼德1925 -）

We shall define language as ―meaning potential‖: that is, as sets of options, or alternatives, in meaning, that are available to the speaker-hearer. -- Halliday

1.3Design features of language

●Design features Concept introduced by C. F. Hockett in the 1960sof a set of key properties of language not shared or not known to be shared, as a set, with systems of communication in any other species. Their number and names vary from one account to another; but all include, as among the most important, the properties of duality, arbitrariness, and productivity.

1.3.1Arbitrariness任意性: The property of language by which there is in general no

natural (i.e. logical) relation between the form of a single lexical unit and its

meaning. 书book livre rose motivated 理据sheep cow moo moo quack

oink bedroom

What‘s in a name? that which we ca ll a rose

By any other name would smell as sweet. – Shakespeare(莎士比亚

1564-1616)

名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约则谓之不宜。-- 《荀子·正

名》

1.3.2Duality二重性Language consists of two levels of structures. The lower

(secondary) level is a definite set of meaningless sounds, such as [ ], [ ], [ ],

[ ], [ ], [ ] which combine to form meaningful units (morphemes, words,

such as he, left) which constitute a higher (primary) level. a: p k pa:k park ka:p carp

1.3.3Creativity创造性Language is creative in the sense that its users can

understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.

1.3.4Displacement移位性By displacement is meant that language can be used to

refer to things that are not present (in time and space) at the moment of

communication.

●Dai (1989): 1.creativity, 2.arbitrariness, 3.duality, 4.displacement, 5.cultural transmission

●Hu (1988): 1.arbitrabiness 2.duality 3.productivity 4.displacement 5.cultural transmission

6.interchangability

●Hu (2001): 1. arbitrariness 2.duality 3.productivity 4.displacement

Wang (1988): 1.双层性2.能产性3.任意性4.互易性5.专用性6.不受环境限制7.传授性

1.4Origin of language speculative and controversial

1.5Functions of language

1.5.1Informative信息功能Language serves an informative function when it

is used to express the speaker‘s opinion, to state a fact, or to reason things out.

(alternatively termed ideational function in Hallidayan framework)

1.5.2Interpersonal function人际功能Language serves to establish and maintain

social relations between people.

1.5.3Performative行事功能Language can be used to do things, to perform action.

e.g. ―I surrender.‖ ―I‘ll do it tonight.‖ ―I declare the meeting open.‖ ― I

sentence you to three years in prison.‖

1.5.4Emotive function感情功能The use of language to reveal the feelings and

attitudes of the speaker. e.g. ―O uch!‖, ―I‘m terribly sorry about… ‖

(alternatively called expressive function)

1.5.5Phatic communion寒暄交谈The use of language to establish or maintain a

comfortable social contact between people without involving any factual

content. E.g. greetings, farewells, and talking about the weather.

1.5.6Recreational function娱乐功能The use of language for the sheer joy of

using it. E.g. singing, poetry writing.

1.5.7Metalingual function元语言功能The use of language to make statements

about language itself. The language about which they are made is called the

object language. E.g. a Chinese grammar of English; to say that book is

pronounced / / is to make a metalinguistic statement about that word.

Language A (obj): English park carp Language B (tool): Chinese, English Quirk et al. 1985 pa:k ka:p

Metaphysics metaphysics metachemistry metascience 科学学science

1.5.8Poetic (Function of language) defined by Jakobson in terms of orientation

towards, or focus on, ―the message for its own sake‖. Thus, in ordinary speech, it is by virtue of the poetic function that e.g. in coordination, one will tend to

put shorter phrase first: I remember especially the wine and the view from the

terrace, rather than, although in terms of other functions they are

equivalent, …the view from the terrace and the wine.

●Hu (1988): 1.phatic 2.directive https://www.sodocs.net/doc/d112282521.html,rmative 4.interrogative 5.expressive

6.evocative

7.performative (BTW, Dai 1989 makes no mention of language functions.)

●Hu (2001:10-16): https://www.sodocs.net/doc/d112282521.html,rmative 2.interpersonal 3.performative 4.emotive 5.phatic

6.recreational

7.metalingual

●Hu (2001:151-152): Karl Bühler‘s tripar tite classification: 1.representative

2.expressive

3.appelative (vocative) Roman Jakobson‘s six-function classification:

1.referential

2.emotive

3.conative

4.metalinguistic

5.poetic

6.phatic Halliday: p.415

seven functions in children‘s language: 1.instr umental 2.regulatory

3.interactional

4.personal

5. heuristic

6. imaginative

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/d112282521.html,rmative three

metafunctions in adult‘s language:1.ideational

2.interpersonal

3.textual

●Wang (1988:11-13): 语言是1.交际的工具2.认知世界的工具3.艺术创作的工具

●Chomsky (1979:88): Language serves essentially for the expression of thought.

●Chomsky (1980:230): We must reject the view that the purpose of language is

communication. (C disagrees that the sole purpose of lang. is communication.)

1.6What is linguistics? The scientific study of language.

parameter what and why observatory adequacy, descriptive adequacy,

explanatory adequacy Mandarin

1.7Microlinguistics

1.7.1Phonetics语音学The study of the nature, production, and perception of

sounds of speech, in abstraction from the phonology of any specific language.

Variously divided into acoustic phonetics, articulatory phonetics, and auditory phonetics. (The branch of linguistics which studies the physical characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification,

and transcription. Cf. transcript

1.7.2Phonology音系学The study of the sound systems of individual languages

and of the nature of such systems generally. (Phonology identifies the set of

speech sounds for each language, how they are arranged to form meaningful

units, and the function of each sound. Phonology reveals what the possible

combinations of sounds in a language are and explains why certain words take the form they do.)

1.7.3Morphology形态学Morphology is concerned with the internal organization

of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and

word-formation processes.

1.7.4Syntax句法学The branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the

combination of words into sentences.

1.7.5Semantics语义学The study of meaning. Seen by Bréal, in the late 19th

century, as an emerging science (French sémantique) opposed to phonetics

(phonétique) as a science of sounds. (Matthews,1997)

1.7.6Pragmatics语用学The study of the meanings that sentences have in

particular contexts.

1.8Macrolinguistics

1.8.1Psycholinguistics心理语言学Any study of language in or from the

viewpoint of psychology. Applied since the1960s to two main fields: the

empirical study of the development of language in children (developmental

psycholinguistics); and the investigation through experiments of the

psychological mechanisms for the production and understanding of speech

(experimental psycholinguistics).

1.8.2Sociolinguistics社会语言学Any study of language in relation to society,

including the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its

users. For example, Labov studies the correlations between linguistic variables

(e.g. the precise phonetic quality of a vowel, or the absence of a certain

element in a construction) and non-linguistics variables such as the social class of speakers, their age, sex, etc.

1.8.3Anthropological linguistics人类语言学It uses the theories and methods of

anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the

cultural patterns and beliefs of man. e.g. the study of lesser-known languages

through field work; emergence of language; ancestral language

1.8.4Computational linguistics计算语言学The use of computers to process or

produce hum an language (also known as ―natural language‖, to distinguish it

from computer languages). E.g. machine translation, speech synthesis

1.9Important distinctions in linguistics

1.9.1Descriptive vs. prescriptive描写vs.规定A linguistic study is descriptive if it

describes and analyzes linguistic facts observed; it is prescriptive if it lays

down rules for grammatical correctness. It’s me. Who did you speak to? I

haven’t done nothing.呆板

1.9.2Synchronic vs. diachronic共时vs.历时The study of language as its exists at

a particular point in time is synchronic. E.g. A Grammar of Ancient Chinese;

The study of language as it changes through time is diachronic. E.g. From Old English to Standard English. Sars figure skating synchronized swimming

1.9.3Langue vs. parole语言vs.言语A distinction made by the Swiss linguist

Ferdinand de Saussure(索绪尔1857-1913). Langue refers to the abstract

linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and p arole refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue. As a social product, langue is a set of convention that members of a speech community abide by. It can be thought of as the generalized rules of the language. Parole is the

concrete use of the conventions or applications of the rules.

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/d112282521.html,ngue is abstract; parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs;

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/d112282521.html,ngue is not actually spoken by anyone; parole is always a naturally

occurring event; parler Parlez vous francais/anglais?

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/d112282521.html,ngue is relatively stable and systematic; parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.

For de Saussure, parole is a mass of confused facts and not suitable for

systematic investigation. What the linguist has to do is to abstract langue from instances of parole– that is, to discover the regularities governing all

instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics. E.g. the

memorization of multiplication table (乘法表); BA-construction in Chinese

(―把‖字句) is the hardest for learners of Chinese as L2.

Langue is the system of a language, ―It is the social product whose existence

permits the individual to exercise his linguistic faculty.‖ Parole is actual

speech, ―executive side of language‖. It is the distinction between langue and

parole that leads to the distinction between phonetics and phonology.

Phonetics studies speech sounds from a physical point of view and phonology

studies the functional units within the linguistic system. e.g. book: took. The

same distinction between what belongs to particular acts and what belongs to

the system leads us also to the distinction between utterance and sentence.

An utterance is a unit of parole; a sentence is a unit of langue. Two utterances

can be the realization of the same sentence. E.g. I, he, they, Once they are used in specific context, they refer to specific persons. This leads Saussure to

suggest the terms of signification and value.

utterance anything spoken on a specific occasion. Often opposed to

―sentence‖: e.g. the words ―Come here!‖, spoken by a specific speaker at a

specific time, form an utterance which is one instance of a sentence Come here!

Hence utterance meaning, as the meaning of something as spoken on a

specific occasion, vs. sentence meaning, as the meaning that a sentence is

said to have independently of any such occasion.

1.9.4Competence vs. performance语言能力vs.语言运用Competence is the

speaker-listener‘s knowledge of his language and performance is the actual

use of language in concrete situations. Competence enables a language user to

produce and understand sentences, including sentences that he has never heard before, and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities (The shooting

of the hunter is terrible. Every teacher likes some student. Flying planes can be dangerous. Visiting aunts is annoying. John paints nudes. John broke the

window. John loaded the apples onto the cart. John loaded the cart with apples.

John sprayed the wall with paint. John sprayed paint onto the wall.

Partitive/holistic effect ). A person‘s competence is stable but his performance

is often affected by psychological and social factors, such as pressure, distress, anxiety, embarrassment, memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention

and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge

of the language in actual performance. Slips of the tongue, false starts,

unnecessary pauses, among other things, all belong to the imperfection of

performance. A speaker‘s pe rformance does not always match his competence.

Chomsky maintains that the task of a linguist is to discover the underlying

knowledge of grammar from the data of performance.

i.Saussure‘s langue is a social product, a set of conventions for a speech

community; Chomsky regards competence as a property of the mind of each

individual;

ii.Saussure looks at language more from a sociological point of view while

Chomsky looks at it from a psychological point of view.

iii.Saussure regards langue as a systemic inventory of items; Chomsky, influenced by Humboldt, Wilhelm von (洪堡特1767-1835), refers to

competence as a system of generative process. (infinite use of finite means) Communicative competence: The ability not only to form grammatically correct sentences but also to use these sentences appropriately (e.g. knowing how to

begin and end a conversation; how to thank, apologize, request, invite, etc.;

what topics are tabooed; how to use different address forms称呼语with

different persons and in different situations. Communicative competence is

proposed by D.H. Hymes(海姆斯), who takes into account the socio-cultural

factors of language and emphasizes the various ways of speaking. He criticizes the Chomskyan notion of linguistic competence as ―a Garden of Eden view‖,

arguing that there is differential competence within a heterogeneous speech

community, both undoubtedly shaped by acculturation. But Chomsky insists

that:

Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a

completely homogeneous speech-community, who knows its language

perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as

memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors

(random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance.

The notion of ―acceptable‖ is not to be confused with ―grammatical.‖ Acceptable is a concept that belongs to the study of performance, whereas

grammaticalness belongs to the study of competence.

In fact, a theory of language use and a theory of grammatical knowledge are complementary. Chomsky claims that establishing

knowledge itself logically precedes studying how people acquire and use

that knowledge, he (1980: 225) also introduced the term pragmatic

competence – knowledge of how language is related to the situation in

which it is used. e.g. It’s rather hot in here. (fan, air conditioner) Can you

swim?(Save the drowning person!) His attention and research on linguistic

competence is as valuable as theoretical physics. MP3=Motion picture

expert group 3

1.9.5Etic vs. emic唯素vs.唯位An –etic account of the sounds of language would

describe them impressionistically as sounds (i.e. as ―phon-etic‖ units) in

advance of an analysis assigning them to phonemic (i.e. ―-emic‖) units; Thus

an analysis of sounds which aims to establish phonemes is an emic, as

opposed to etic analysis. An –etic unit is any physical properties observable by the eyes, whereas an –emic unit is a formal unit in a closed system. e.g. There are some common phonetic properties about [ ] which is present in most

languages, so [ ] is an –etic unit which could be observed and described by

means of impression; alternatively, it could also be described as a member of

the sound system in any language, in fact, [ ] has allophones in certain

situations, in this case, / / is an –emic unit. Play lake apple girl top stop

Chapter 2 Speech Sounds

2.1 Speech production and perception

●Speech as the primary medium of language, writing, secondary

i.S peech has a history of at least 100,000 years, writing only about 6,000 years;

ii.C hildren learn to speak before they learn to write;

iii.T he blind can speak but the deaf cannot, sound channel important sight channel; iv.T ens of millions of people in the present world speak languages w/o written forms and have only oral literature.

●The importance of writing

i.O ral messages are subject to distortion, written messages remain exactly the same

whether read a thousand years later or ten thousand miles away;

ii.H uman memory is short-lived and the brain‘s storing capacity is finite, whic h can be overcome with the help of writing;

iii.W riting can transcend time and space, the advent of films, radios, recorders and TV cannot supersede this function of writing, e.g. recording technology is studied and communicated through writing.

●articulatory phonetics发音语音学acoustic phonetics声学语音学auditory

phonetics听觉语音学

2.2 Speech organs

articulators: nasal鼻的;鼻音alveolar齿龈的;齿龈音palate颚(the roof of the mouth) velar软腭的;软腭音uvula小舌vocal folds=vocal cords声带vocal tract 声道

2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription

2.3.1 Segments and divergences

Segment音段Segments are obtained by dividing a continuous speech into successive discrete (离散) units, such as phonemes and morphemes. E.g. He

left. can be cut into he, left, or [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].

George Bernard Shaw(萧伯纳，乔治·伯纳德1856-1950) fish -- ghoti: enough, women, nation

Reasons for divergence between pronunciation and spelling in English:

i.More sounds than letters;

ii.Some sounds, esp. vowels, changed but English orthography remains highly conservative;

Great V owel Shift: A series of changes in late Middle English (Middle English 1066-1485), by which close long vowels became diphthongs and other long

vowels shifted one stop loser. Thus, in the front series, [ ] > [ ], [ ] > [ ], [ ] > [ ], [ ] > [ ]; in the back series, [ ] > [ ], [ ] > [ ], [ ] > [ ]. Often interpreted as a unitary phenomenon; hence as a classic example of

a chain shift.

It is in consequence of these and other changes that [ ] in name (formerly [ ]) is spelled a, or [ ] in shine (formerly [ ]) spelled i. They are also the main factor in the development of vowel alternations between long [ ] and short [ ] (in sane/sanity), long [ ] and short [ ] (divine/divinity), and so on.

In the 15th century, English vowels underwent a substantial shift known as the Great V owel Shift, e.g. the current diphthong [ ] in time, wide and dine was almost certainly a long [ ], while the vowel now pronounced [ ] as in green and meet was a long [ ], but short (or lax) vowels were not affected in the same way.

iii.Many loanwords. stomach[OFr stomaque

monsieur[OFr: my lord

2.3.2 Phonetic transcription

IPA国际音标=International Phonetic Alphabet The system of phonetic transcription developed and promoted by the International Phonetic Association(国际语音学协会). Consonants are classified by place and manner of articulation, the transcription of vowels is according to the cardinal vowel system. Its main principles are that there should be a separate symbol for each distinctive sound, and that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language.

Broad transcription宽式音标: The use of a simple set of symbols in phonetic transcription.

Narrow transcription窄式音标: The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail. E.g. [ ] play, [ ] help; aspirated松气vs. unaspirated

不松气, diacritic: [ ] top, [ ] stop; common symbol [ ] vs.

unusual symbol [ ].

2.4 Consonants

The sound segments (speech sounds) are classified into consonants辅音/子音

and vowels元音/母音. Consonants are produced by obstructing the airstream at some point of the vocal tract(声道). V owels are produced with the airstream passing through the vocal tract without obstruction. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.

2.4.1 Manners of articulation: The way in which a consonant is produced by the

speech organs.

(1)Stop (or plosive) 闭塞音(or破裂音;爆发音): [ , , , , , ];

(2)Nasal鼻音[ , , ];

(3)Fricative摩擦音: [ , , , , , , , , ];

(4)Affricate塞擦音: [ , ];

(5)Approximant无摩擦延续音: [ , , ];

(6)Lateral边音；旁流音: [ ];

(7)Tap or Flap一次接触音or闪音: tap in American English, [ ], [ ;

city letter water

(8)Trill颤音(sometimes called Roll滚音): [ ] Esperanto, Russian, Italian, Spanish,

and typical Scottish English (e.g. red, rye, also Indian English? a film about Gandhi) have alveolar trill [ ], French (e.g. Merci, grammaire fran?aise, Parlez-vous fran?ais? parler le fran?ais comme une vache espagnole), Dutch, and Portuguese have uvular trill [ ].

●Sibilants咝擦音: fricatives and affricates often behave in the same way: / , ,

, , , ].

●[ , , , ] have been rejected from English.

●Diacritic附加符号;变音符: e.g. [ , ], poison[ ],

poisson[ ], point[ ], fran?ais[ ]

2.4.2 Places of articulation: The classification of consonants according to the

different parts of the vocal organs involved in the course of production.

(1)Bilabial双唇音：[ , , , ]；

(2)Labiodental唇齿音：[ , ]；

(3)Dental齿音：[ , ]；

(4)Alveolar齿龈音：[ , , , , , , ]；

(5)Postalveolar后齿龈音：[ , , , ]；

(6)Retroflex卷舌音: A retroflex r-sound is typical of American English. e.g. car,

part,

(7)Palatal腭音: [ ]；

(8)Velar软腭音: [ , , ];

(9)Uvular小舌音: e.g. French [ ];

(10)P haryngeal喉头音；喉音: Arabic；

(11)G lottal喉音: [ ] fat[ ], pack[ ], button[ ], beaten[ ],

fatten [ ].

2.4.3 The consonants of English

Received pronunciation (RP): An accent of English identified by Daniel Jones （丹尼尔·琼斯1881-1967）as characteristic of educated speakers in the south of Britain.

There are 24 consonants in English.

In case two sounds share the same place and manner of articulation, they are distinguished by voiceless清音and voiced浊音in terms of vibration of vocal folds. E.g.

[ ] voiceless bilabial stop

[ ] voiced bilabial stop

2.5 Vowels

2.5.1 Four criteria of vowel description

?the part of the tongue that is raised: front, central, back;

?the height the tongue raising: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and

mid-low, e.g. [ ] and [ ] in French), low; or the mouth openness: close, close-mid, open-mid, open;

?the length or tenseness of the vowel: long vs. short, or tense vs. lax;

?lip-rounding: rounded vs. unrounded or spread.

English –lip-rounding: [ ] [ ] [ ]

French +lip-rounding: [ ] [ ] [ ]

2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels

Cardinal vowels: A set of vowels established by Daniel Jones as fixed and

unchanging reference points for the description of vowels in any language.

By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to

eight:

CV1 [ ], CV2 [ ], CV3 [ ], CV4 [ ], CV5 [ ], CV6 [ ], CV7 [ ], CV8 [ ];

and

CV9[ ], CV10[ ],CV11[ ], CV12[ ],CV13[ ], CV14[ ], CV15[ ],

CV16[ ] are secondary cardinal vowels obtained by reversing the

lip-rounding for a corresponding position.

Schwa / / (also shwa)非重读央元音: A short vowel produced with the

tongue in the mid-central position in the mouth and lips unrounded. The

phonetic symbol for a schwa is [ ], in English it frequently occurs in

unaccented syllables, e.g. a- in / / about, -er in / / worker and

in unstressed words in rapid speech, e.g. to in / / to make.

2.5.3 Vowel glides

Diphthong / /: A speech sound which is usually considered as one

distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves tow vowels,

with one vowel gliding to the other. E.g. in English / / in / / my is a

diphthong.

Triphthong / /: (in phonetics) a term sometimes used for a

combination of three vowels. E.g. in English / / in / / fire is a

diphthong.

Tense vowel紧元音: Articulated with more effort in the muscles of the vocal cords. E.g. [ ], [ ], [ ].

Lax vowel松元音: Articulated with less effort in the muscles of the vocal cords.

E.g. [ ], [ ], [ ].

2.6 Coarticulation协同发音: In continuous stream of speech, sounds show the

influence of their neighbors. The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive sounds is called coarticulation. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as Anticipatory coarticulation逆化协同发音, e.g.

lamb, seat, soup, sweet;If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, it is Perseverative coarticulation重复性协同发音, e.g. map.

Minimal pair最小对立体: Two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one phoneme) and which also differ in meaning.

E.g. the English words bit and bet are a minimal pair as they differ in meaning

and phonemes [ ] and [ ].

Phoneme音位: The smallest sound unit in a language which can distinguish two words. E.g. the English words pan, ban, bin / /, / /, / /, / /. The number of phonemes varies from one language to another. English is often considered to have 44 phonemes: 24 consonants and 20 vowels.

Phone音素;音子: A speech sound which is identified as the realization of a single phoneme. E.g. [ ], [ ], [ ] are phones which realize successive phonemes in [ ] peak.

Allophones音位变体: Different phones by which the same phoneme can be realized. E.g. [ , =] in peak and speak. The allophones of a phoneme are in complementary distribution in the sense that they never occur in the same context. Eg. + aspirate – aspirate

拼b‘in pin 宾bin Wades Peking Tsinghua

spot, sports, stop, student, sky, skill, school

(1) / / [ =] / [ ] _________

[ ] elsewhere

(2) / / [ ] / ____________ V

[ ] / V ___________

Free variants自由变体: cup [ ] [ ]; either, direct, tomato, potato. 2.9 Phonological process

2.9.1 Assimilation同化: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the

characteristics of neighboring sound. Assimilation is often used synonymous with coarticulation. If a following sound influences a preceding sound, it is regressive assimilation逆同化: e.g. can, tan, tenth, ninth, sink, mink, gooseberry, raspberry, cupboard, five pence, have to, used to, pan cake, sun glass. Progressive assimilation顺同化is the converse process, in which a preceding sound influences a following sound, e.g. works, words, pears, writes, rides, eyes, laughed, loved, played.

2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rules

Epenthesis插音;增音: The insertion of a vowel or consonant between sounds.

s ixths [ ], an apple, an hour: [ ] / [ ] _______V;Aime-t-il Marie?

2.9.3 Rule ordering

e.g. the pronunciation of English nominal plural forms

/ [-voice, C] ________ (Devoicing)

/ sibilant _________ (Epenthesis)

Epenthesis will always apply before Devoicing.

2.10 Distinctive Features

Distinctive Feature区别性特征: A phonetic feature which distinguish one phonological unit, especially one phoneme, from another. E.g. voice is a distinctive feature in English, since e.g. bit and pit, but voice is not in Australia.

The place features are divided into 4 values:

Labial唇音, Coronal舌面前音；舌尖音, Dorsal舌背音, Guttural颚音,

2.11 Syllables

Suprasegmental features超语段特征:

Suprasegmental: (in phonetics and phonology) units which extend over more than one sound in an utterance, the principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.

2.11.1 The syllable structure

Syllable音节: A phonological unit consisting of a vowel or other unit that can be produced in isolation. A syllable must have a nucleus音节核or peak(节)峰. We can divide a syllable into two parts, the rhyme (or rime韵;韵脚) and the onset节首辅音. As the vowel within the rhyme is the nucleus, the consonants(s) after it is the coda节尾辅音;符尾. A syllable that has no coda is an open syllable, while

a syllable with coda is a closed syllable. The Greek letter σ (sigma) is used to

represent a syllable, e.g. clasp

σ

O R

N Co

2.11.2 Sonority scale响音阶

Why do we have clasp, help, lump, pray, quick, but not*lkaps, *hepl, *lupm, *rpay, *wqick?

Sonority: The inherent loudness of a sound. The degree of sonority of different classes of sound affects their possible positions in the syllable:

Sonority scale: Most sonorous 5 V owels

4 Approximants: [ , , , l]

3 Nasals: [ , , ]

2 Fricatives: [ , , , , , , , , ]

Least sonorous 1 stop: [ , , , , , ]

The sonority of each sound gradually rises to a peak at the nucleus and then falls at the coda. The phoneme / / is exceptional, no explanation is found for [ ],

[ ], [ ], [ ].

cf. Dai et al. 1989: 25 Sequential rules: 1. If a word begins with a [ , , , l], then the next sound must be a vowel; 2. If three consonants cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: 1) the first phoneme must be / / 2) the second phoneme must be / / or / / or / / 3)

the third phoneme must be / / or / / or / /. 3. The nasal / / never begins a word

in English, but it does in some Chinese dialects, e.g. Xiang dialect / / 伢means ―boy‖, 呀呀叫means ―cry‖, Cantonese?

2.11.3 Syllabification and the maximal onset principle

Maximal onset principle最大节前辅音原则: When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. e.g.

[ . ] country.

2.12 Pitch and Tone

Pitch音调:音高: When we listen to people speaking, we can hear some sounds or groups of sounds in their speech to be relatively higher or lower than others. This relative height of speech sounds as perceived by a listen is called ―pitch‖. e.g. the English question Ready? meaning ―Are you ready?‖ The second syllable –dy sounds higher than the first one. The faster the vocal cords vibrate, the higher the pitch. The pitch of a sound depends on the rate of

vibration of the vocal cords, which in turn is determined by the length of the vocal cords. In male adults the vocal cords are typically longer (about 23mm) than in women (about 18 mm). Therefore the sounds produced by men have a lower pitch than those by women. Pitch is a suprasegmental feature, whose smallest domain of application is the syllable. Different vibration rate of vocal cords produce what is known in acoustic terms as different frequencies, and in auditory terms as different pitches.

Tone1声调: Def.1 Pitch variations may be distinctive like phonemes, that is, they may contribute to distinguish between different words. In this function, pitch variations are called Tones, and languages using tones to distinguish the meanings of words are called Tone languages.

Def.2 Height of pitch and change of pitch which is associated with the

pronunciation of syllables or words and which affects the meaning of the

word. E.g. Mandarin Chinese, a tone language声调语言, makes a distinction

between four different tones:

(high level tone阴平) ―mother‖ (Try mother mother)

(high rising tone阳平) ―hemp‖

(fall-rise上声) ―horse‖

（high falling tone去声）―scold‖

Tone languages used in Vietnam, Thailand, West African, and Central American.

Tone2语调: also pitch movement. A change in pitch which affects the meaning and function of utterances in discourse. In a tone unit the syllable on which pitch movement begins is called the tonic or the tonic syllable. The tonic syllable is often the last prominent syllable in the unit. e.g. He’s DRUNK rising tone

surprised exclamation, He’s DRUNK, a falling tone, express disgust.

Intonation: When pitch, stress, and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.

2.13 Stress

Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.

Fixed stress: the first syllable in Hungarian;

the last syllable in Turkish, French;

the penultimate (next to the last) syllable in Polish;

Free stress: English, Russian. Primary stress, secondary stress;

The Sound Pattern of English(Chomsky and Halle, 1968) long/tense and short/lax values of the five vowel letters: a, e, i, o, u

insane, prostate, explain obscene, esthete, convene divine, parasite, divide verbose, telescope, compose

profound, pronounce, denounce. insanity, prostatic, explanatory obscenity, esthetic, convention divinity, parasitic, division

verbosity, telescopic, compositor profundity, pronunciation, denunciation.

Noting the patterns of such alternations, C&H propose various rules to account for ―tense‖ and ―lax‖ vowels in appropriate environments. This means that a word like convene can be assigned an underlying form containing a vowel which is lax or tense according to its environment – lax, e.g. before two consonants (as in convention) and tense when no suffix is present (as in convene).

―strong‖ and ―weak‖ clusters (C&H, 1968:29): A weak cluster is a sequence consisting of a short vowel followed by at most one consonant; a strong cluster consists either of a short vowel followed by at least two consonants or of a long vowel or diphthong followed by any number of consonants. Now this structural difference is relevant in a stress rule which applied to words such as the following, which end in a weak cluster and have stress on the penultimate（/ /倒数第二的）

syllable:

de ve lop de li ver in her it in hi bit ed it;

whereas those that end in a strong cluster have stress on the final syllable:

e lope com plete re veal a llow ex ist.

But morphological factors are also relevant – in particular certain suffixes have their own effect on the stress pattern. Thus the suffix –ance or –ence, although it ends in a strong cluster, does not attract the stress when added to the above words, i.e.

de liv er de liv erance

in her it in her itance

a llow a llow ance

ex ist ex ist ence.

On the other hand, the suffix –ion requires stress on the preceding syllable, which in some cases causes a shift of stress:

in hib it inhi bi tion

ed it e di tion

ded icate dedi ca tion

Furthermore if word-stress are intended to cover the patterning of compounds and phrases, they must account fort the English tendency to stress the first element of a compound but the final elements of a phrase.

Compounds with special meaning Ordinary phrase

n. + n.

beauty-spot (picturesque place) bookworm (person)

cross-word (type of puzzle) iron master (manufacturer) paper-boy (boy selling newspaper) watermark (mark in paper)

waterspout (column of water)

beauty spot (patch on the face)

book worm (insect)

cross word (angry word)

iron master (very severe master) paper boy (model made of paper) water mark (level of water)

water spout (spout for water)

a. + n.

blackberry (berry not necessarily black 黑莓)

blackbird (birds not necessarily black 乌鸫)

blackboard (classroom writing surface)

blackshirt (member of a fascist party黑衫党)

blacksmith (worker in iron)

bluebook (official publication)

blue stocking (pedantic woman)

dark-room (for photography)

greenhouse (a hot house)

greenstuff (green vegetable)

hot dog (sausage in a bread roll) redcoat (British soldier)

English teacher (who teaches English) English book (to teach English)

White House (president‘s mansion) white paper (British govt. publication) yellow book (French govt. publication)

black berry

black bird

black board

black shirt

black smith

blue book

blue stocking

dark room (one that is dark)

green house

green stuff (anything green)

hot dog (an overheated animal) red coat

English teacher (who is English)

English book (printed in English) White house

white paper

yellow book

RP differs from GA (General American); part of speech (grammatical function);

It has been said that the English and the Americans are two great people separated by one language. – Edward T. Hall

同英、美英语中少量的语法差异相比，发音差异就有规律多了。从这一点上说，我们可以断言两者之间的最大差别在于发音。-- P. Strevens

I.语音比较

1.元音

1）在GA中，凡有字母r，就有[ ]音：

fear hair poor fire flower far four work heard worker

murmur bitter

2）字母a在-ff, -lf, -m, -n, -ss, -sk, -st,-th等前面，RP读[ ]，GA读[ ]: staff half example dance advantage pass past task path

laugh clasp craft

3）RP的[ ]在GA中读得较短、较开，接近于[ ]：

bought caught all law talk walk water saw paw 4）RP的[ ]在GA中读得更开，且不圆唇，读作[ ]：

got doctor job stop lost not hot

5）RP的双元音[ ]，在GA中不一定都是双元音，在清辅音前读作[ ]，在音节末或浊辅音前要产生向[ ]滑动的过程，可注音为[ ]:

RP GA

gate [ ] [ ]

make [ ] [ ]

gay [ ] [ ]

grade [ ] [ ]

6）RP的[ ]，舌位等于[ ]的起始音，GA的[ ]，舌位较低，口较开，等于[ ]的起始音，故标作[ ]: get better well yes question

7）R前后都有元音时，RP在前面的元音与r之间加[ ]，而GA不加: hero (RP:[ ]; GA:[ ]) period experience Mary various

tourist plural curious during tiring flowery

8）RP的[ ]，在[ , , , , , , ]之后，GA多读作[ ]，但也有人读作[ ]:

new duty tube lure enthusiasm assume resume suit superior 9）GA中元音的鼻音化，美国干燥多变的气候引起鼻腔变化？元音的鼻音化往往出现在鼻辅音[]之前或之后，发音时，缩短元音，增强鼻音，如answer, me。

2.辅音（差别更少）

1）wh-在GA中除who，whom，whose, whole等与RP相同，都读[ ]，其他都读[ ]，亦有人读[ ]，但被认为不标准：

what which when where why white wheel whisper whale whether

2）RP中[ ]仅在音节末或辅音前读dark[ ]，GA中[ ]在元音之间和词首时也多读成[ ]:

follow (RP: [ ], GA: [ ]) village develop silly light will belt

3）[ ]在元音之间时，GA把它发得很弱，近似[]，有轻微声带振动，用[ ]表示:

better (RP: [ ], GA: [ ]) little water writing cf.

writer/rider latter/ladder whiter/wider

4）RP中[ ]和[ ]的使用不统一，如version，但以 ]为主，GA中则以[ ]为主: Version (RP: [ ], GA: [ ]) coercion Asia Persia

II.单词发音比较

1.元音不同

advertisement /RP: ; GA: /

ate /RP: ; GA: /

anti- /RP: ; GA: / (e.g. antibiotic /RP: ; GA: /)

address /RP: ; GA: /

been /RP: ; GA: /

borough /RP: ; GA: /

cadre /RP: ; GA: /

clerk /RP: ; GA: /

current /RP: ; GA: / cf. cut, furrow, hurry ego /RP: ; GA: /

either /RP: ; GA: /

epoch /RP: ; GA: /

idyll /RP: ; GA: /

leisure /RP: ; GA: /

lever /RP: ; GA: /

metaphor /RP: ; GA: /

missile /RP: ; GA: /

mobile /RP: ; GA: , / patriot /RP: ; GA: /

progress(n) /RP: ; GA: /

record /RP: ; GA: /

shone /RP: ; GA: /

thorough /RP: ; GA: /

tomato /RP: ; GA: /

tournament /RP: ; GA: / vacation /RP: ; GA: /

z /RP: ; GA: /

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