7 Ethics and Documentation TP

Chapter 7

Ethics and Documentation交际伦理与文献引证

The word ethic means moral custom—beliefs about good or bad behavior. Ethics can refer to individual standards of behavior, standards of a particular group, or universal standards. In this chapter, ethic specifically refers to the standard governing the conduct for a particular group—those who communicate technical information.

Documentation means supporting statements in a book or article with in-text citations and reference lists. 使用引证和和参考文献表来支持文中的陈述。If you write for publication, you will be required to document your sources. Writers acknowledge their sources in order to increase their credibility and avoid plagiarism. They document their sources as a service to the reader by providing the information that allows the reader to locate the original source of the information cited.

I.Intellectual Property and Ethics知识产权与伦理

In writing you must respect the intellectual property of others and give complete credit to those whose information you use. Failing to acknowledge the ideas of others is unethical; publishing the ideas of others as your own is illegal. 在写作中要尊重他人的知识产权，并对引用的信息说明材料来源。未能承认他人的意见是不道德的，把他人的意见作为自己的意见发表是违法的。Therefore, you must document the sources of all ideas or expressions that are neither your own nor common knowledge.

However, it is often difficult to distinguish just what is common knowledge and what is not. Common knowledge refers to facts and ideas that are widely known and available from a number of sources. Read the following examples and tell which expresses common knowledge and which should be documented.

1)The Mars is the fourth planet from the sun.

2)The Mars has a sidereal period 恒星周期of revolution around the sun of 687 days at a

mean distance平均距离of 227.8 million kilometers and a mean diameter二次平均直径

of approximately 6,726 kilometers.

3)There are living organisms on the Mars.

The first two sentences are common knowledge because they are generally recognized knowledge that can be found in common textbooks, dictionaries and encyclopedias. However, because there is some disagreement over whether there are really living organisms on the Mars, the third statement should be documented.

One popular problem now is the widespread availability of information on the Internet. Information gets passed around very quickly through the World Wide Web. You should avoid the temptation to simply download information from the Internet and use it, without giving credit. Even if you don?t know whom to give credit to, you should at least cite the source.

II.Incorporating Source Material in Your Writing把原始资料引入文章

In technical writing you may frequently use the ideas you have learned from others through your reading. Reporting the results of reading can be as important as the research itself. Generally there are three methods of reporting the results of your reading.

?Quotation: u sing the author?s exact words

?Paraphrase: putting the ideas into your own words

?Summary: condensing the ideas into a shorter passage

1.Quotations

Quotations are direct citations from the previous works of others or your own. Quotations are accurate, but they can be lengthy and difficult to understand. In general, you should only use direct citations when you cannot say the same thing more clearly or more concisely than the original, or when the original language is so distinctive that you would lose something in a paraphrase or a summary.

Quotations are introduced and closed with double quotation marks. For clarity, you should incorporate quotations into the text as much as possible:

Stickle et al. reported that “the patients who received nifedipine were about half as likely to need an aortic-valve replacement as those who took digoxin over the next five years” (1996).

斯狄科等报告说，“在以后的五年中，服用心痛定的患者需要行主动脉瓣替换手术的比服用地高辛的患者低50%。”（1996）。

To indicate a quotation within a quotation, use single quotation marks:

The Medical Quarterly reported that “Taylor found …spirochete-like elements? in skin-biopsy specimens of erythema chronicum migrans.”《医学季刊》报告说，“泰勒发现在慢性游走性红斑病的活检标本有‘类螺旋菌成分’”。

Use ellipses省略号to indicate omitted material. If the omission occurs within a sentence, use three periods with a space before and after each period to indicate omitted material: 如果省略出现在句子里面，使用三个句号并在每一个句号前后空一格。

O RIGINAL PASSAGE:

The disaster of the space shuttle Challenger in 1986, which killed all seven astronauts on board, is regarded as the most disastrous space-traveling accident in history.

E LLIPTICAL QUOTATION:

“The disaster of the space shuttle Challenger in 1986 . . . is regarded as the most disastrous space-traveling accident in history.”

You can use brackets to clarify something in the original that might not be clear to the reader. For example, since the reader might not know what the pronoun “it” refers to in the following citation, the writer has added the reference in brackets:

Taylor claims that, “Indeed, if it [the virus] exists, it may be much shorter lived in animals than

in human beings.”

You can also use brackets to show that an error in the text appears in the original. The most common way of indicating an error in a quotation which is not the writer?s mistake is to place “sic” (Latin for “thus” or “so”) within brackets:

“The epidemic is nondiscriminating, as it effects [sic] both sexes and all ages.”（此处本应该用affects）

If the quoted material is lengthy, you should set it off as an indented block缩排的信息块. There is little agreement among technical writing as to exactly what “lengthy” means and just how many spaces to indent. A general rule to follow is that if the quoted material runs longer than four lines, you?d better indent the passage five spaces with single space between the lines. Do not enclose the passage in quotation marks but set it in italics.

We think they (Chinese colleagues) need to continue along this line (teaching vocabulary) but we also think they should make additional efforts in a somewhat different direction. For example, they could take advantage of the current ESP courses to introduce rhetorical issues, such as audience, purpose, information selection, and page layout. When both instructors and students feel more comfortable, other rhetorical issues may be introduced. (Ding & Jablonski, 2001, p. 432)

Be careful when you copy information, and double-check when you edit. If you spell a s ource?s name wrong, if you write the wrong date, if you transpose numbers, or if you inadvertently give the wrong page number in your documentation, that error might well cause a reader to question all your facts.

2.Paraphrase

Paraphrase means to restate the ideas of others in a more easily understood form. Generally, a paraphrase is about the same length as the original passage, and is used when a writer wants to include many of the details in the original:

O RIGINAL PASSAGE:

The instability of the heavy elements relative to those of mass number around 60, as is shown by the binding energy curve, suggests the possibility of spontaneous decomposition of the heavy elements into fragments of approximately half size.

结合能曲线显示，同原子量在60左右的元素相比，重元素是不稳定的，这说明重元素有可能自发分裂成两个大小大致相等的碎片。

P ARAPHRASE:

The binding energy curve shows that heavy elements are less stable than those of mass number around 60. This suggests that the heavy elements can possibly split up by themselves into parts of about half size.

The original is a long sentence with complex structures, including nominalization and too many modifiers. The paraphrase simplifies the structure by dividing the original into two sentences, and converting nominalization (instability, possibility, decomposition) into verbs or adjectives (less stable, possibly, split up). Thus the meaning of the passage becomes clearer and easier to understand.

3.Summary

A summary also retells the idea of the original but is much briefer than the original. It reflects the language and tone of the original, and is used when the writer does not want to include many details in the original. The following is an example of a summary.

O RIGINAL PASSAGE:

Laser light is very different from ordinary light. The light from a flashlight, for example, is incoherent, that is, it travels in all directions. Laser light is coherent, which is to say that the outer edges of the beam are almost perfectly parallel to each other. A laser beam one-half inch in diameter will diverge to become only three inches in diameter after traveling more than one mile; or, to look at it another way, that half inch beam, if fired from the earth to the moon, would illuminate an area on the lunar surface only slightly greater than one mile in diameter. By focusing the laser beam through a lens system, even smaller areas of coverage can be achieved.

Laser light, in addition to being coherent, is also monochromatic. Ordinary light is polychromatic, which means it consists of all light frequencies ranging from infrared to ultraviolet. Laser light normally consists of only one frequency or at most a few frequencies.

激光与普通光有很大不同。例如，从手电筒中发出的光是不相干的，也就是说，它向各个方向传播。激光是相干光，也就是说，光束的外缘是几乎完全相互平行的。直径为一英寸的一束激光在传播一英里多之后直径只扩散到直径3英寸；用另一种方式讲，如果把直径为半英寸的激光束照射到月球上去，光束只会覆盖直径略大于一英里的月面。如果用透镜系统对激光束进行聚焦，激光束的扩散面会更小。激光除了具有相干性之外，还具有单色性。普通光是多色的，包含从红外线到紫外线的所有频率的光波。激光通常只含有一个频率，至多不过几个频率。

S UMMARY:

Laser light is different from ordinary light in that laser light is a kind of parallel light which consists of only one color or one frequency, whereas ordinary light is a kind of unparallel light which consists of all colors or all light frequencies.

Summary is the most frequently used form for reporting the results of your reading. In writing summaries you should make complex ideas more easily understandable by using more familiar language. You need to combine information from several sources in the same summary section, rearrange the material, and delete the material that is not important to your writing.

4.Guidelines for Incorporating Source Material

Audience

?If your readers are experts, you will not have to define many terms or offer many paraphrases. A direct quotation may be necessary.

?If your material is highly technical and your readers are novices, they will likely need summaries and paraphrases that they can understand.

?If readers are concerned primarily in getting a general understanding of the material than in absorbing details, you may use more summary than paraphrase.

?If readers are looking for information to help them make a decision, they will likely be looking for summaries that will help them make those decisions.

?If your readers are looking for detailed information, you will likely include a lot of details in your paraphrases.

Quotations

?Faithfully reproduce every detail from the original.

?Integrate the quotation into the text so that the reader can follow the text easily.

?Quote only what is necessary, only what must be quoted.

Paraphrase and Summary

?Understand your audience clearly so that you maintain an appropriate level of diction and determine whether terms you are using from the source need to be defined.

?Avoid wordiness, needless repetition, and redundancy, which waste the reader?s time and interfere with the clear communication of ideas.

?If you are paraphrasing, convey the correct sense of the original by including many of the details from the original, do not leave out any information whose omission would

significantly alter the message.

?If you are summarizing, convey accurately the sense of the original but do not include many details from the original.

III.Documenting Your Sources引证资料来源

After incorporating information in your writing, you must document the sources of all quotations, paraphrases, and summaries. Documentation has three important functions. Firstly, it gives credit to those whose information you have used and failing to give complete credit is plagiarism. 说明你引用信息材料的来源，对此未加说明则被认为是抄袭。Secondly, it establishes authority and credibility of your work by displaying the scope and depth of your research.第二，引证通过显示你研究的范围和深度以建立你研究的权威性和可靠性。It shows readers where you got the information, how recent your information is, and who the writers are. Thirdly, it allows readers to examine your sources in detail. If readers want to know more about a specific reference they can find that book or article according to your documentation.

Basically, there are three forms of documentation: footnotes, endnotes, and in-text citations脚注、尾注和夹注. We will mainly discuss the in-text citation in this chapter, because it has become the standard form of documentation.

1. In-Text Citations and Reference Lists夹注和参考文献表

An in-text citation is a brief notation in the text that identifies the source and at the same time provides a cross-reference to the reference list at the end of the document. 夹注是对文章中信息来源的简单注释，它同时对文件结尾的参考文献表提供相互参照。The reference list is a directory of information about all the sources in the document. It provides an address for each reference in your paper. The reference list is generally arranged alphabetically and includes the following basic

publication information.

?For books: author(s), title, publisher, date, and place of publication.

?For periodicals: author(s), title of article, name of journal, issue or volume number, and inclusive pages.

Different disciplines and journals may require slightly different forms of documentation. Therefore, you should always check the requirements of the organization or the journal for which you are writing, and then turn to the appropriate style manual for the details and examples.

2. APA Style for In-Text Citations

One of the popular styles for in-text citation is the APA Style (the American Psychological Association 1994). It uses the author-year method of citation; that is, the author?s name and the year of publication appear in parentheses separated by a comma:

Digoxin has side effects in treating patients with aortic regurgitation (Taylor, 1995). 地高辛对治疗主动脉瓣反流患者有副作用。

If you are including a direct quotation, give the page number of the source as well as the author and year. Note that each part of the reference is separated by commas, and the page reference begins with “p.” followed by a single space:

Digoxin has “side effects in treating patients with aortic regurgitation” (Taylor, 1995, p. 12).

If you have just mentioned the author in the text, it is sufficient to just note the year of publication (and page if applicable):

Taylor (1995, p. 12) claims that digoxin has “side effects in treating patients with aortic regurgitation.”

If you don?t know the author of a work, use an abbreviated version of the title. Use double quotation marks around the title of an article, or underline the title of the periodical or book:

Digoxin has side effects in treating patients with aortic regurgitation (“Aortic Regurgitation,”

1995).

If you want to include some of your source information in the main part of your sentence, insert only the author in the sentence. Avoid including either only the year or both the author and the year in the sentence:

A WKWARD:

In 1995, it was claimed that digoxin has side effects in treating patients with aortic regurgitation (Taylor).

In 1995, Taylor claimed that digoxin has side effects in treating patients with aortic

regurgitation.

B ETTER:

Taylor claimed that digoxin has side effects in treating patients with aortic regurgitation (1995).

If there are fewer than six authors, cite all of them the first time, and only the first auth or plus “et al.” after that:

F IRST OCCURRENCE:(Taylor, Nicholson, Moore, & Clinton, 1996)

S UCCEEDING OCCURRENCES:(Taylor et al., 1996)

If there are more than five authors, name the first and add “et al.” even for the first time to indicate that there are additional authors:

(Smith et al., 1997)

If the author and the year are the same for two or more references, add lowercase letters (in alphabetical succession) after the year:

(Taylor, 1995a)

If the reference list includes publications by two or more authors with the same surname, include the authors? initials in all citations, e ven if the year is not the same:

(F.E. Taylor, 1995)

3. APA Style for Reference Lists

The basic publication information for book citations in a reference list is slightly different from that of periodical citations, which will be discussed respectively in this part.

Book Citations.The general form for book citations includes the following items in order.

1)Author: Place the last mane first, followed by a comma and initials for all authors. Put a

comma after e ach author, with an ampersand (&) before the last author?s name. End the list of authors with a period.

2)Year of Publication: Place the year of publication in parentheses, followed by a period.

3)Book Title: Underline, i.e. italicize the title with only the first word and any proper names

capitalized, followed by a period.

4)Place of Publication: Include only the city, unless the city is not well known or unless the

city could be confused with another location. Separate place and publisher with a colon.

5)Publisher: Give the name of the publisher in as brief a form as possible. Spell out names

of associations and presses, but omit terms that are not needed to identify the publisher, such as “Co.,” “Inc.,” and “Assoc.” Follow the name with a period.

The following examples illustrate some of the most frequently used forms for book citations:

B OOK WITH O NE A UTHOR.Invert the author?s name, use commas to separate surnames and initials, and finish each element with a period:

Munby, J. (1978). Communicative Syllabus Design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

B OOK WITH M ORE THAN O NE A UTHOR.Include all authors? names, regardless of the number of authors. Use commas to separate authors, and use an ampersand (&) before the last author:

Hargis, G., Carey, M., Hernandez, A. K., Hughes, P., Longo, D., Rouiller, S., & Wilde, E.

(2004). Developing quality technical information, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

L ATER E DITION OF A B OOK.Add the edition in parentheses after the title of the book:

Pickett, N. A., & Laster, A. A. (1996). Technical English (7th ed.). New York: Harper Collins.

E DITED B OOK. Add “Ed.” Or “Eds.” in parentheses after the name(s) of the editor(s):

Wang, L. M. (Ed.). (1993). Encyclopedia of traditional Chinese medicine. Beijing: Science Press.

A RTICLE OR C HAPTER IN AN E DITED

B OOK.Give the author(s) and title of the work you are citing first, and then provide information about the book that contains the work. In the following example, note that the editor?s name is given with first initials before the last name, the word “In” is added before the name of the editors, and the actual page numbers of the work cited are included in parentheses:

Wilkins, D. A. (1979). Grammatical, situational and notional syllabuses. In C. J. Brumfit & K.

Johnson (Eds.), The communicative approach to language teaching(pp. 82-90). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

B OOK WITH N O A UTHOR OR E DITOR. If there is no author or editor, list the book under the title. In the reference list, alphabetize books with no author or editor by the first significant word in the title:

Effective technical writing. (2001). Miami: Nicholson Software.

Periodical Citations. The general form for journal article citations in a reference list includes the following items in order.

1)Author: Place the last mane first and follow by a comma and initials for all authors. Put a

comma after e ach author, with an ampersand (&) before the last author?s name. Follow the list of authors with a period.

2)Year of Publication: Place the year of publication in parentheses and follow by a period.

3)Article Title.Capitalize only the first word of the title. Do not underline or use quotation

marks around the title. Follow by a period.

4)Journal Title. Give the journal title in full. Underline (i.e. italicize) the title, and capitalize

the notional words in it. Follow by a comma.

5)Volume Number.Underline the volume number and follow by a comma. Do not use “V,”

“V ol.,” or “V olume” before the volume number. If each issue of the periodi cal begins on page 1, give the issue number (in parentheses) after the volume number.

6)Page Numbers.Give inclusive page numbers of the article. Do not precede the page

numbers with “p.” or “pp.” for journal articles. Use “p.” or “pp.” before page numbers o f newspapers and magazines. Follow the page number(s) with a period.

The following examples illustrate some of the most frequently used forms for periodical citations.

J OURNAL A RTICLE WITH O NE A UTHOR. Invert the author?s name, use commas to separate sur names and initials. Follow the above instruction and finish with a period:

Wiles, D. (2003). Single sourcing and Chinese culture: A perspective on skills development within Western organizations and the People?s Republic of China（信息资源的一体化应用和中国文化：对西方组织和中国在技能发展方面的看法）. Technical Communication, 50, 371-384.

J OURNAL A RTICLE WITH M ORE THAN O NE A UTHOR. Include all authors? names, regardless of the number of authors. Use commas to separate authors, and use an ampersand (&) before the last author:

Allen, J. P. B. & Widdowson, H. G.. (1974). Teaching the communicative use of English.

International Review of Applied Linguistics 12 (1):1-21.

M AGAZINE OR N EWSPAPER A RTICLE.Give the complete date instead of the volume number. Note that the date is given with the year followed by month and day. The page numbers are preceded by “p.” or “pp.”:

Fonseca, D. (2006, February 5). Simplified technical English. Intercom, pp. 20-22.

A RTICLE WITHOUT A UTHOR.Give the title of the article with only the first word capitalized. Place the year and date of publication in parentheses and separate them with a comma. Underline the name of the periodical (magazine, or newspaper), and precede the page number(s) with “p.” or “pp.”:

Seven steps of online help writing. (2004, May 12). Technical Writing Journal, p. 24. Electronic Sources. The general form for citing electronic sources has the following parts:

1.Author: Place the last mane first, followed by a comma and initials for all authors. Put a

comma after e ach author, with an ampersand (&) before the last author?s name. End the list

of authors with a period.

2.Year of Publication: Place the year of publication in parentheses, followed by a period. If

there is no date, include the date of the search.

3.Title of Article or Chapter. Capitalize only the first word of the title. Do not underline or

use quotation marks around the title. Follow by a period.

4.Title of Full Work. Underline, i.e. italicize the title with only the first word and any proper

names capitalized, followed by a period.

5.Type of Medium. Insert the method of publication in brackets (e.g., [Online], [CD-ROM]).

6.“Available.” Use “Available” to replace “Place of Publication” and “Publisher”

immediately after the type of medium.

7.Path.Provide the specific method the reader can use to find the material (e.g.,

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/3d892441.html,.au/library/litrev.html ).

The following examples illustrate some of the most frequently used forms for electronic sources:

O N-L INE S OURCES

Bass, R. (1997). Technology & learning. A brief guide to interactive multimedia and the study of the United States. [On-line]. Available: https://www.sodocs.net/doc/3d892441.html,/crossroads/mltmedia.html

The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. (2006,15 Aug.). Abstract.

Special writing assignments [On-line]. Available:

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/3d892441.html,/depts/wcweb/handouts/abstracts.html

CD-ROM S OURCES.

Kemble, E. (2001). Guidelines for technical communication [CD-ROM]. Jonathan Data Bank.

Southampton: Jonathan [Producer and Distributor].

E-M AIL

Nicholson, M. (2003, July). Nutrition of soy foods. E-mail to the author.

4. Number System

Some journals require writers to use a number system instead of the name-and-year system for in-text citations and the reference list. In the number system, a number is inserted in parentheses instead of a name and year in the in-text citation, such as (1) or (2). This number in the text corresponds to a numbered entry in the reference list. In some number systems, the page number is also given, which is separated from the reference number by a comma, such as (1, 24).

There are generally two number systems. In one system, the in-text citations are numbered according to their sequence of appearance in the text. The number of citation in the text corresponds to the number of entry in the reference list: the first citation is the first entry; the second citation is the second entry, and so on. For this method, the references are not listed alphabetically, but numerically according to the sequence in which they appear in the text.

1.Wiles, D. (2003). Single sourcing and Chinese culture: A perspective on skills development

within Western organizations and the People?s Republic of China. Technical communication 50, 371-384.

2.Allen, J. P. B. & Widdowson, H. G.. (1974). Teaching the communicative use of English.

International Review of Applied Linguistics 12 (1):1-21.

3.Huth, E. J. (1982). How to write and publish papers in the medical sciences. Philadelphia:

ISI Press.

In the second system, the reference list at the end of the text is presented alphabetically, and a number for a citation is placed in the text that corresponds to a specific entry in the reference list: (1) would refer to the first entry in the list, (2) to the second entry, and so forth. In this method the numbers of the in-text citations will not be in the sequence of their appearance in the text.

1.Allen, J. P. B. & Widdowson, H. G.. (1974). Teaching the communicative use of English.

International Review of Applied Linguistics 12 (1):1-21.

2.Huth, E. J. (1982). How to write and publish papers in the medical sciences. Philadelphia:

ISI Press.

3.Wiles, D. (2003). Single sourcing and Chinese culture: A perspective on skills development

within Western organizations and the People?s Republic of China. Technical communication 50, 371-384.

Exercises

I.Read the following sentences and tell which expresses common knowledge and which

should be documented.

1.The earth is the third planet from the sun, having a sidereal period of revolution about the sun of

365.26 days at a mean distance of approximately 149 million kilometers (92.96 million miles).

Commom knowledge.

2.The earth has an axial rotation period of 23 hours 56.07 minutes, an average radius of 6,374

kilometers (3,959 miles), and a mass of approximately 29.11 ×10 kilograms (13.17 ×10 pounds). Commom knowledge.

3.The earth is undergoing a period of global warming, which will probably cause 70% of its

icebergs to melt in 200 years. Documentation required.

4.The World Wide Web has become a powerful new medium for sharing information, conducting

business and communicating with people throughout the world. Commom knowledge.

5.The ability of American Online to bring together access, content and selling in a fairly

user-friendly package has sped up the growth of Internet. Documentation required.

6.The number of items listed for sale on e-Bay increased greatly from 487000 in early 1998 to

more than 583 million in the first quarter of 2006. Documentation required.

7. A leaky aortic valve allows blood that has just been pumped out of the heart and into the aorta

to flow backwards into the left ventricle, a problem which is known as aortic regurgitation.

Commom knowledge.

8.Nifedipine has a better curative effect with fewer side effects than digoxin in treating patients

with aortic regurgitation. Documentation required.

II.Paraphrase the following sentences. The audience for your paraphrase should be educated people who are interested in but not specifically knowledgeable about the issue. Try to make your paraphrase accurate, clear, and concise.

1.The number of the stars is, in fact, far beyond the power of the mind to grasp; yet so great is the

universe that it is sparsely populated.

Paraphrase：We can?t emagine how many stars there are in the universe; yet the space is so large that the countless stars only exist far apart from each other in it.

2.As with most new developments that suggest incredible possibilities, the laser?s more fearsome

aspects have been so emphasized that the instrument has taken on all the aspects of a doomsday weapon.

Paraphrase：Once a new invention that brings great possibilities to people?s mind is developed, it?s applications as weapons are usually so stressed that people only regard it as a deadly weapon. It has been the same with laser.

3.In the field of communications the laser is being used to transmit more telephone messages

down a fiber optic strand (a strand no larger than a pencil lead) than in the past could have been carried by a wire cable three inches in diameter.

Paraphrase：In the field of communications the laser is being used to transmit more telephone messages down a very thin cable of glass fiber (as a pencil lead in diameter) than the messages that could have been carried by a very thick wire cable (three inches in diameter).

4.Up to less than ten years ago viruses were looked upon as intangible entities in the existence of

which no one would have believed had it not been for the undeniable reality of the diseases produced by them in every type of living organism.

Paraphrase：Only in less than ten years ago, viruses were regarded as something that could neither be touched nor felt. If it had not been for the diseases they actually caused in every type of living organism, no one would have believed that viruses really existed.

5.The University of Wessex's recently developed rapid, sensitive, specific, double-antibody

radioimmunoassay technique, whose validity has been demonstrated in application to determination of hormone release into media previously utilized for incubation of rat anterior pituitary fragments was used in these investigations.

Paraphrase：In the investigation, they used the rapid, sensitive and specific technique developed at the University of Wessex for double-antibody radioimmunoassay of growth hormone from rats. This technique has been shown to be valid when used to calculate how much hormone is released into media in which fragments of anterior pituitary from rats have been incubated. 在研究中我们使用了威塞克斯大学发明的，用于对老鼠生长激素进行双抗体放射免疫测定的迅速、敏感的特效技术。这一测定在用于计算进入培养基的激素释放量时曾被证明是有效的，老鼠垂体前叶切片在这里进行孵育。

6.To some elected officials, the new era of abortion politics meant electoral tong wars with

abortion as the sole litmus test of a candidate?s worth—a no-win proposition for any politician whose constituency is divided on the issue.

Paraphrase：To some officials who want to be reelected, abortion policies in the future would become the only test for the voters to decide whether a candidate is worth electing or not. Since the voters for any candidate are divided in the problem of abortion, it would be impossible for

any politition to please both sides on this issue, and thus the candidate would never win the election.

III.Prepare a summary of each of the following passages. The audience for your summary should be educated people who are interested in but not specifically knowledgeable about the issue. Remember the need to be accurate, clear, and concise.

1.The oil company maintains a large personnel database that is basically used for many kinds of

employee-related application such as payroll and benefits. The company now has some plans to extend the database significantly to include current photographs of employees and use the photographs as the basis for a very modern security system. The system is specifically designed to protect secure areas of the company?s building from access by any people who really do not have authorization to be there.

Summary：The oil company plans to extend its personnel database to include employee photographs. It wants to use the photographs in a security system that will protect certain areas of the building from unauthorized access.

2.Now at this point you may ask: How do we know that the crystals are really the virus and not

just carrying the virus contained within them? Well, that was the question many people asked at the outset, but there is now such a large body of evidence which suggests that virus and crystal are one, as to leave very little doubt on the subject. Much of this evidence, however, is highly technical, so that I shall not be able to go into the matter in much detail. First this unusual virus protein can only be obtained from virus-diseased plants and not from healthy ones. Secondly, in the case of the tobacco mosaic virus, the protein can be isolated from plants unrelated to the tobacco plant, such as the phlox, provided it is infected with the virus, but not otherwise. Thirdly, any process which destroys or denatures this protein also destroys the virus activity, and it is not possible to dissociate one from the other. Lastly, it has been shown by physical and chemical tests that these proteins are actually pure protein, and so the presence of any other contaminating substance is ruled out unless it is a substance which has the same physical and chemical properties as the virus itself. It seems unnecessary to postulate the existence of two such substances when one will fulfill all the conditions.

至此你可能要问：我们怎样知道这些晶体是实际的病毒，而不是其中含有病毒的晶体呢?

不错，这正是许多人在开头时提出的问题，但是，现在有大量证据表明，病毒和晶体就是同一种东西，这个问题没有什么可怀疑的。然而，有许多证据技术性很强，所以我不能把这个问题说得很详细。第一，这种不寻常的病毒蛋白只能从感染病毒的植物而不能从健康植物中获得。第二，就烟草花叶病毒而害言，蛋白可以从与烟草无关的植物(如福禄考)离析出来，条件是它受到这种病毒的感染，否则不行。第三，凡破坏这种蛋白或使它变性的任何过程，也能破坏病毒的活度，因此不可能把它们彼此分开。最后，物理试验和化学试验已经证明，这些蛋白质实际上是纯蛋白质，因而就排除了其中存在沾染物的可能，除非这种沾染物与病毒本身具有同样的物理和化学特性。当一种物质能满足所有这些条件时，似乎就没有必要假定其中存在两种这样的物质了。

Summary：There is a large body of evidence to prove that the crystals are really the tobacco mosaic virus. First this virus protein can only be obtained from virus-diseased plants. Secondly, the protein can be isolated from plants unrelated to the tobacco plant, provided it is infected with the virus. Thirdly, any process which destroys or denatures this protein also destroys the

virus activity, and it is not possible to dissociate one from the other. Lastly, it has been shown by physical and chemical tests that these proteins are actually pure protein, and so the presence of any other contaminating substance is ruled out.

IV.With other students from your major or field of interest, prepare a brief handbook summarizing the major form of documentation (in-text citations and the reference list) used in your discipline. And make examples of documentation according to your handbook. 略。

2016年人体解剖学总结笔记-医学生们的免费总结

人体解剖学 备课笔记

一、 人体解剖学（human an atomy ）:研究正常人体各器官形态、结构、位置、 毗邻关系及其发生发展规律的科学，属于 生物学中形态学的范畴。 目的：使学生理解和掌握人体各器官系统的形态结构特点及其相互关系， 为学习其他基础医学和临床医学课程奠定必要的形态学基础。 二、 分类： 来阐明每一个局部有关 广义解剖学 及毗邻关系。 细胞学 组织学 胚胎学 其他门类：断层解剖学、比较解剖学、运动解剖学、应用解剖学、生长解剖 学、艺术解剖学等。 三、 人体结构概述： （一） 细胞+间质 一"组嚅官 系统 人体 （二） 人体九大系统： 1、运动系统： 2、消化系统； 3、呼吸系统； 4、泌尿系统； 5、生殖系 统； 6、脉管系统； 7、内分泌系统；8感觉器；9、神经系统。 （三） 分部： 1、 头部：颅、面。 2、 颈部：颈、项。 3、 躯干部：胸部、腹部、盆部。 4、 四肢 左、右上肢：肩、臂、前臂、手； L 左、右下肢：臀、大腿、小腿、足。 四、 人体解剖学的基本术语 （一） 解剖学姿势：人体直立，面向前方，两眼平视正前方，两上肢下垂于 躯干两侧，手掌向前，两足并立，足尖向前。 （二） 方位术语： 4、 内与外：某结构与体腔或空腔脏器的相互位置关系，近腔者为内， 远腔者为外。 5、 浅、深：体内某点与体表间的距离，近皮肤者为浅，远者为深 J 近侧：靠近肢体附着者 系统解剖学: 将人体分成若干个系统， 按各个系 统进行形态结构等的 （ 巨视解剖学 局部解剖学 叙述。 :将人体分成若干个部分， 按部分 诸器官结构的层次排列、 局部位置 微视解剖学 1、 上（颅侧）：近头者 2、 前（腹侧）：近腹者 3、 内侧：近正中面者 下（尾侧）：近足者 后（背侧）：近背者 外侧： 远正中面者。

半导体物理知识点及重点习题总结

基本概念题： 第一章半导体电子状态 1.1 半导体 通常是指导电能力介于导体和绝缘体之间的材料，其导带在绝对零度时全空，价带全满，禁带宽度较绝缘体的小许多。 1.2能带 晶体中，电子的能量是不连续的，在某些能量区间能级分布是准连续的，在某些区间没有能及分布。这些区间在能级图中表现为带状，称之为能带。 1.2能带论是半导体物理的理论基础，试简要说明能带论所采用的理论方法。 答： 能带论在以下两个重要近似基础上，给出晶体的势场分布，进而给出电子的薛定鄂方程。通过该方程和周期性边界条件最终给出E-k关系，从而系统地建立起该理论。 单电子近似： 将晶体中其它电子对某一电子的库仑作用按几率分布平均地加以考虑，这样就可把求解晶体中电子波函数的复杂的多体问题简化为单体问题。 绝热近似： 近似认为晶格系统与电子系统之间没有能量交换，而将实际存在的这种交换当作微扰来处理。 1.2克龙尼克—潘纳模型解释能带现象的理论方法 答案： 克龙尼克—潘纳模型是为分析晶体中电子运动状态和E-k关系而提出的一维晶体的势场分布模型，如下图所示 利用该势场模型就可给出一维晶体中电子所遵守的薛定谔方程的具体表达式，进而确定波函数并给出E-k关系。由此得到的能量分布在k空间上是周期函数，而且某些能量区间能级是准连续的（被称为允带），另一些区间没有电子能级（被称为禁带）。从而利用量子力学的方法解释了能带现象，因此该模型具有重要的物理意义。 1.2导带与价带 1.3有效质量 有效质量是在描述晶体中载流子运动时引进的物理量。它概括了周期性势场对载流子运动的影响，从而使外场力与加速度的关系具有牛顿定律的形式。其大小由晶体自身的E-k 关系决定。 1.4本征半导体 既无杂质有无缺陷的理想半导体材料。 1.4空穴 空穴是为处理价带电子导电问题而引进的概念。设想价带中的每个空电子状态带有一个正的基本电荷，并赋予其与电子符号相反、大小相等的有效质量，这样就引进了一个假想的

人体解剖学笔记

人体解剖学

绪论 一、人体解剖学(human anatomy)：研究正常人体各器官形态、结构、位置、毗邻关系及其发生发展规律的科学，属于 生物学中形态学的范畴。 目的：使学生理解和掌握人体各器官系统的形态结构特点及其相互关系，为学习其他基础医学和临床医学课程奠定必要的形态学基础。 二、分类： 系统解剖学：将人体分成若干个系统，按各个系统进行形态结构等的 巨视解剖学叙述。 局部解剖学：将人体分成若干个部分，按部分来阐明每一个局部有关 广义解剖学诸器官结构的层次排列、局部位置及毗邻关系。 细胞学 微视解剖学组织学 胚胎学 其他门类：断层解剖学、比较解剖学、运动解剖学、应用解剖学、生长解剖学、艺术解剖学等。 三、人体结构概述： （一）细胞＋间质组织器官系统人体 （二）人体九大系统： 1、运动系统： 2、消化系统； 3、呼吸系统； 4、泌尿系统； 5、生殖系统； 6、脉管系统； 7、内分泌系统； 8、感觉器； 9、神经系统。 （三）分部： 1、头部：颅、面。 2、颈部：颈、项。 3、躯干部：胸部、腹部、盆部。 4、四肢左、右上肢：肩、臂、前臂、手； 左、右下肢：臀、大腿、小腿、足。 四、人体解剖学的基本术语 （一）解剖学姿势：人体直立，面向前方，两眼平视正前方，两上肢下垂于躯干两侧，手掌向前，两足并立，足尖向前。 （二）方位术语： 1、上（颅侧）：近头者下（尾侧）：近足者 2、前（腹侧）：近腹者后（背侧）：近背者 3、内侧：近正中面者外侧：远正中面者。 4、内与外：某结构与体腔或空腔脏器的相互位置关系，近腔者为内，远腔者为外。 5、浅、深：体内某点与体表间的距离，近皮肤者为浅，远者为深 近侧：靠近肢体附着者 6、四肢远侧：远离肢体附着者 内侧和外侧上肢：尺、桡 下肢：胫、腓 （三）轴和面 1、轴： 1）垂直轴：上、下方向走行； 2）矢状轴：前、后方向走行； 3）冠（额）状轴：左、右方向走行。 2、面： 1）矢状面（纵切面）：将人体分成左、右两半 （居于正中，将身体分为左右相等两半称正中矢状面）； 2）冠状面（额状面）：将人体分成前、后两半；

最新尼尔曼第三版半导体物理与器件小结+重要术语解释+知识点+复习题

尼尔曼第三版半导体物理与器件小结+重要术语解释+知识点+复 习题

第一章固体晶体结构 (3) 小结 (3) 重要术语解释 (3) 知识点 (3) 复习题 (3) 第二章量子力学初步 (4) 小结 (4) 重要术语解释 (4) 第三章固体量子理论初步 (4) 小结 (4) 重要术语解释 (4) 知识点 (5) 复习题 (5) 第四章平衡半导体 (6) 小结 (6) 重要术语解释 (6) 知识点 (6) 复习题 (7) 第五章载流子运输现象 (7) 小结 (7) 重要术语解释 (8) 知识点 (8) 复习题 (8) 第六章半导体中的非平衡过剩载流子 (8) 小结 (8) 重要术语解释 (9) 知识点 (9) 复习题 (10) 第七章pn结 (10) 小结 (10) 重要术语解释 (10) 知识点 (11) 复习题 (11) 第八章pn结二极管 (11) 小结 (11) 重要术语解释 (12) 知识点 (12) 复习题 (13) 第九章金属半导体和半导体异质结 (13) 小结 (13) 重要术语解释 (13) 知识点 (14) 复习题 (14) 第十章双极晶体管 (14)

小结 (14) 重要术语解释 (15) 知识点 (16) 复习题 (16) 第十一章金属-氧化物-半导体场效应晶体管基础 (16) 小结 (16) 重要术语解释 (17) 知识点 (18) 复习题 (18) 第十二章金属-氧化物-半导体场效应管：概念的深入 (18) 小结 (19) 重要术语解释 (19) 知识点 (19) 复习题 (20)

第一章固体晶体结构 小结 1.硅是最普遍的半导体材料。 2.半导体和其他材料的属性很大程度上由其单晶的晶格结构决定。晶胞是晶体 中的一小块体积，用它可以重构出整个晶体。三种基本的晶胞是简立方、体心立方和面心立方。 3.硅具有金刚石晶体结构。原子都被由4个紧邻原子构成的四面体包在中间。 二元半导体具有闪锌矿结构，它与金刚石晶格基本相同。 4.引用米勒系数来描述晶面。这些晶面可以用于描述半导体材料的表面。密勒 系数也可以用来描述晶向。 5.半导体材料中存在缺陷，如空位、替位杂质和填隙杂质。少量可控的替位杂 质有益于改变半导体的特性。 6.给出了一些半导体生长技术的简单描述。体生长生成了基础半导体材料，即 衬底。外延生长可以用来控制半导体的表面特性。大多数半导体器件是在外延层上制作的。 重要术语解释 1.二元半导体：两元素化合物半导体，如GaAs。 2.共价键：共享价电子的原子间键合。 3.金刚石晶格：硅的院子晶体结构，亦即每个原子有四个紧邻原子，形成一个 四面体组态。 4.掺杂：为了有效地改变电学特性，往半导体中加入特定类型的原子的工艺。 5.元素半导体：单一元素构成的半导体，比如硅、锗。

人体解剖学考试重点笔记+

人体解剖学备课笔记

绪论 一、人体解剖学(human anatomy)：研究正常人体各器官形态、结构、位置、毗邻 关系及其发生发展规律的科学，属于生物学中形 态学的范畴。 目的：使学生理解和掌握人体各器官系统的形态结构特点及其相互关系，为学习其他基础医学和临床医学课程奠定必要的形态学基础。 二、分类： 系统解剖学：将人体分成若干个系统，按各个系统进行形态结构等的 巨视解剖学叙述。 局部解剖学：将人体分成若干个部分，按部分来阐明每一个局部有关 广义解剖学诸器官结构的层次排列、局部位置及毗邻关系。 细胞学 微视解剖学组织学 胚胎学 其他门类：断层解剖学、比较解剖学、运动解剖学、应用解剖学、生长解剖学、艺术解剖学等。 三、人体结构概述： （一）细胞＋间质组织器官系统人体 （二）人体九大系统： 1、运动系统： 2、消化系统； 3、呼吸系统； 4、泌尿系统； 5、生殖系统； 6、脉管系统； 7、内分泌系统； 8、感觉器； 9、神经系统。

（三）分部： 1、头部：颅、面。 2、颈部：颈、项。 3、躯干部：胸部、腹部、盆部。 4、四肢左、右上肢：肩、臂、前臂、手； 左、右下肢：臀、大腿、小腿、足。 四、人体解剖学的基本术语 （一）解剖学姿势：人体直立，面向前方，两眼平视正前方，两上肢下垂于躯干两 侧，手掌向前，两足并立，足尖向前。 （二）方位术语： 1、上（颅侧）：近头者下（尾侧）：近足者 2、前（腹侧）：近腹者后（背侧）：近背者 3、内侧：近正中面者外侧：远正中面者。 4、内与外：某结构与体腔或空腔脏器的相互位置关系，近腔者为内，远腔者为外。 5、浅、深：体内某点与体表间的距离，近皮肤者为浅，远者为深 近侧：靠近肢体附着者 6远侧：远离肢体附着者 内侧和外侧上肢：尺、桡 下肢：胫、腓 （三）轴和面 1、轴： 1）垂直轴：上、下方向走行； 2）矢状轴：前、后方向走行；

半导体物理知识点总结

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1.何谓人体解剖学姿势？ 答：人体解剖学姿势即身体直立，两眼向前平视，下肢靠拢，足尖朝前，双上肢自然下垂于躯体干两侧，手掌朝前。 2.骨按形态可分为：长骨、短骨、扁骨、不规则骨。 胸骨自上而下依次分为：胸骨柄、胸骨体、剑突。 顶骨、颞骨，不成对的脑颅骨有：额骨、枕骨、蝶骨、筛骨。 鼻旁窦有四对，包括：额窦、筛窦、蝶窦、上颌窦。 肩胛骨上能触及的骨性标志有：肩峰、上角、下角、肩胛冈、喙突、内侧缘。 7.椎间盘由纤维环和髓核构成。 8.胸廓是由12块胸椎、12对肋和1块胸骨借骨连结构成的。 9.下颌关节由：下颌头与下颌窝构成。其关节腔内有：关节盘。 10.椎间孔：是指相邻椎骨的椎上切迹和椎下切迹所组成的孔，有脊神经和血管通过。 11.胸骨角：胸骨柄与胸骨体相接处形成突向前方的横行隆起，称为胸骨角，可在体表摸到，他平对第二肋，为计数肋的重要标志。 12.翼点：在颞窝区内有额、顶、颞、蝶四骨的汇合处，称为翼点，此处骨质比较薄弱，其内面有脑膜中动脉前支经过，翼点处骨折时，容易损伤该动脉，引起颅内血肿。 13.椎间盘：椎间盘是上、下相邻两个椎体之间的纤维软骨盘，由周围的纤维环和中央部的髓核构成。 14.腹股沟管：腹股沟管是指腹股沟韧带内侧半上方有一斜贯腹肌和腱膜的裂隙，为男性的精索或女性子宫圆韧带所通过。 15.试述椎骨的一般形态。 答：每块椎骨均由椎体和椎弓两部分构成。椎体位于前部，呈短圆柱状。椎弓试附在椎体后方的弓状骨板，它与椎体围成椎孔椎弓与椎体相连的部分较细，称为椎弓根，其上方有椎上切迹，下方有椎下切迹，相连椎骨的椎上下切迹组成椎间孔。两侧椎弓根向后内侧扩展为宽阔的骨板，称为椎弓板。每个椎弓伸出7个突起，即向两侧伸出一对横突，向上伸出一对上关节突，向下伸出一对下关节突，向后伸出单一的棘突。 16.写出鼻旁窦的名称及开口部位。

半导体物理学第八章知识点

第8章 半导体表面与MIS 结构 许多半导体器件的特性都和半导体的表面性质有着密切关系，例如，晶体管和集成电路的工作参数及其稳定性在很大程度上受半导体表面状态的影响；而MOS 器件、电荷耦合器件和表面发光器件等，本就是利用半导体表面效应制成的。因此．研究半导体表面现象，发展相关理论，对于改善器件性能，提高器件稳定性，以及开发新型器件等都有着十分重要的意义。 §8.1 半导体表面与表面态 在第2章中曾指出，由于晶格不完整而使势场的周期性受到破坏时，禁带中将产生附加能级。达姆在1932年首先提出：晶体自由表面的存在使其周期场中断，也会在禁带中引入附加能级。实际晶体的表面原子排列往往与体内不同，而且还存在微氧化膜或附着有其他分子和原子，这使表面情况变得更加复杂。因此这里先就理想情形，即晶体表面无缺陷和附着物的情形进行讨论。 一、理想一维晶体表面模型及其解 达姆采用图8-l 所示的半无限克龙尼克—潘纳模型描述具有单一表面的一维晶体。图中x ＝0处为晶体表面；x ≥0的区域为晶体内部，其势场以a 为周期随x 变化；x ≤0的区域表示晶体之外，其中的势能V 0为一常数。在此半无限周期场中，电子波函数满足的薛定谔方程为 )0(20202≤=+-x E V dx d m φφφη (8-1) )0()(2202≥=+-x E x V dx d m φφφη (8-2) 式中V (x)为周期场势能函数，满足V (x +a )=V(x )。 对能量E ＜V 0的电子，求解方程(8-1)得出这些 电子在x ≤0区域的波函数为 ])(2ex p[)(001x E V m A x η -=φ (8-3) 求解方程(8-2)，得出这些电子在x ≥0区域中波函数的一般解为 kx i k kx i k e x u A e x u A x ππφ22212)()()(--+= (8-4) 当k 取实数时，式中A 1和A 2可以同时不为零，即方程(8-2)满足边界条件φ1(0)=φ2(0)和φ1'(0)=φ2'(0)的解也就是一维无限周期势场的解，这些解所描述的就是电子在导带和价带中的允许状态。 但是，当k 取复数k =k '+ik ''时（k '和k ''皆为实数），式(8-4)变成 x k x k i k x k x k i k e e x u A e e x u A x '''--''-'+=ππππφ2222212)()()( (8-5) 此解在x→∞或-∞时总有一项趋于无穷大，不符合波函数有限的原则，说明无限周期势场不能有复数解。但是，当A 1和A 2任有一个为零，即考虑半无限时，k 即可取复数。例如令A 2＝0，则 x k x k i k e e x u A x ''-'=ππφ2212)()( (8-6) 图8-l 一维半无限晶体的势能函数

人体解剖学学习心得

人体解剖学学习心得 人体解剖学是关于人体形态结构的学科，是一门重要的护理学基础课程，解剖学知识不仅是学习生理学，内外科护理学等课程的基础，同时坚实的解剖学知识是做好临床护理工作的可靠基础；作为一个非医学专业的大学生，虽然不用过深的对人体解剖方面进行深入的研究，但是平时多掌握一些医学常识，了解一些基本的人体构造方面的知识还是很有必要的。 基于以上种种原因，所以在大二第二次选修课程的时候，我选择了人体解剖学这一科，当然学习过程中也收获颇多，在钱国强老师的讲解下，我们对人体自身的结构，内脏等各个部位都有了很深的理解和认识；同时，也学到了很多生活中的小常识，让我对人体解剖和生活医学小常识方面事实而非的东西变得逐渐清晰。 课堂上老师先给我们讲一些解剖的术语和人体结构的名称，有的我们都知道，但是大多数我们不知道的，人体解剖学的名称和术语繁多，所以学习它就需要记住他们，我们只是要求了解，我们中学学的是细胞、组织、器官、系统等，但是解剖学却是研究他们的方法。我们通过看解剖相关的图片和视频，了解了解剖的一些方法和过程，看起来时有些害怕，但想想那些在解剖的工作人员，我想他们肯定是有着非常好的心理素质，同时也让我想到了那些拿手术刀的医生，他们动手术也应该是一个解剖的过程，手术就是解剖学的应用之一吧，还有那些破案的法医也是通过解剖尸体获取相应的破案证据。只有正确认识了正常人体形态结构，才能充分认识其生理，生化过程以及病理变化，进而理解和掌握各种疾病的发生，发展，临床特征与诊治，预防原则。 我们学习解剖学主要讲的是人体的几大系统和结构，运动系统主要学习与运动相关的骨骼，有骨的分布，骨的连接，骨的构造和骨骼相关的骨骼肌等，然后

医学笔记：人体解剖学之呼吸系统

人体解剖学 之 呼吸系统 张桢

第五章呼吸系统 呼吸系统有输送气体的呼吸道和进行气体交换的肺两部分组成。呼吸道包括鼻、咽、喉、气管及各级支气管，它们的壁内均有骨或软骨作为支架，以维持呼吸道的通畅。临床上把鼻、咽、喉称为上呼吸道，把气管及各级支气管称为下呼吸道。 第一节呼吸道 一、鼻 鼻是呼吸道的门户，也是嗅觉器官，包括外鼻、鼻腔和鼻旁窦三部分。 （一）外鼻 外鼻位于两部中央，由鼻骨和软骨作支架，外被皮肤和少量皮下组织，内衬黏膜。外鼻上端位于两眼之间的部分称鼻根，向下延成鼻背，下端为鼻尖。 （二）鼻腔 鼻腔以骨和软骨为基础，表面衬以黏膜和皮肤。鼻腔被鼻中隔分为左、右两腔。每侧鼻腔向前经鼻孔与外界相通，向后经鼻后孔通鼻咽。 1、鼻前庭由鼻翼围成，内面衬以皮肤，生有鼻毛。鼻毛可阻挡灰尘吸入。 2、固有鼻腔位于鼻阈后上方，是鼻腔的主要部分，由骨和软骨覆以黏膜而成，其形态大

致与骨性鼻腔相同，临床所指鼻腔常指该部而言。 （1）鼻中隔由筛骨垂直板、犁骨及鼻中隔软骨覆以黏膜而成，是左右鼻腔的共同内侧壁，一般不完全居正中矢状位，往往是偏向一侧。 （2）鼻腔外侧壁鼻腔外侧壁形态复杂，自上而下有三个被覆粘膜的上、中、下鼻甲及各鼻甲下方的上、中、下鼻道。 （3）鼻黏膜按生理功能分为嗅区和呼吸区，上鼻甲内侧面以及与其相对的鼻中隔部分的鼻粘膜内含有嗅细胞，活体呈苍白或淡黄色，具有嗅觉功能，称为嗅区。其余的大部分称为呼吸区。 （三）鼻旁窦 鼻旁窦又称副鼻窦，是鼻腔周围含气颅骨的腔，内衬黏膜，对吸入的空气由加温、加湿作用，对发音起共鸣作用。 鼻旁窦有四对，分别是额窦、上颌窦、筛窦和蝶窦，筛窦又分前、中、后三群，四对鼻旁窦分别位于其同名颅骨内。 二、咽 （一）咽的位置和形态 咽是一个上宽下窄、前后略扁的漏斗形肌性管道，是消化和呼吸的共用通道，位于颈椎前方，上起颅底，下至第6颈椎下缘续于食管。

人体解剖学考试重点笔记+

人体解剖学 备课笔记 绪论 一、人体解剖学(human anatomy)：研究正常人体各器官形态、结构、位置、 毗邻关系及其发生发展规律的科学，属于 生物学中形态学的范畴。 目的：使学生理解和掌握人体各器官系统的形态结构特点及其相互关系，为学习其他基础医学和临床医学课程奠定必要的形态学基础。二、分类： 系统解剖学：将人体分成若干个系统，按各个系统进行形态结构等的 巨视解剖学叙述。 局部解剖学：将人体分成若干个部分，按部分

来阐明每一个局部有关 广义解剖学诸器官结构的层次排列、局部位置及毗邻关系。 细胞学 微视解剖学组织学 胚胎学 其他门类：断层解剖学、比较解剖学、运动解剖学、应用解剖学、生长解剖学、艺术解剖学等。 三、人体结构概述： （一）细胞＋间质组织器官系统人体 （二）人体九大系统： 1、运动系统： 2、消化系统； 3、呼吸系统； 4、泌尿系统； 5、生殖系统； 6、脉管系统； 7、内分泌系统； 8、感觉器； 9、神经系统。 （三）分部： 1、头部：颅、面。 2、颈部：颈、项。 3、躯干部：胸部、腹部、盆部。 4、四肢左、右上肢：肩、臂、前臂、手； 左、右下肢：臀、大腿、小腿、足。 四、人体解剖学的基本术语 （一）解剖学姿势：人体直立，面向前方，两眼平视正前方，两上肢下垂于 躯干两侧，手掌向前，两足并立，足尖向前。 （二）方位术语： 1、上（颅侧）：近头者下（尾侧）：近足者 2、前（腹侧）：近腹者后（背侧）：近背者 3、内侧：近正中面者外侧：远正中面者。 4、内与外：某结构与体腔或空腔脏器的相互位置关系，近腔者为内，远腔者为外。 5、浅、深：体内某点与体表间的距离，近皮肤者为浅，远者为深 近侧：靠近肢体附着者 6、四肢远侧：远离肢体附着者 内侧和外侧上肢：尺、桡 下肢：胫、腓 （三）轴和面 1、轴： 1）垂直轴：上、下方向走行； 2）矢状轴：前、后方向走行； 3）冠（额）状轴：左、右方向走行。 2、面： 1）矢状面（纵切面）：将人体分成左、右两半

半导体物理考研总结

1.布喇格定律（相长干涉）：点阵周期性导致布喇格定律。 2.晶体性质的周期性：电子数密度n(r)是r的周期性函数，存在 3.2πp/a被称为晶体的倒易点阵中或傅立叶空间中的一个点，倒易点中垂线做直线可得布里渊区。 3.倒易点阵： 4.衍射条件：当散射波矢等于一个倒易点阵矢量G时，散射振幅达到最大 波矢为k的电子波的布喇格衍射条件是： 一维情况（布里渊区边界满足布拉格）简化为： 当电子波矢为±π/a时，描述电子的波函数不再是行波，而是驻波（反复布喇格反射的结果） 5.布里渊区：

6.布里渊区的体积应等于倒易点阵初基晶胞的体积。 7.简单立方点阵的倒易点阵，仍是一个简立方点阵，点阵常数为2π/a，第一布里渊区是个以原点为体心，边长为2π/a的立方体。 体心立方点阵的倒易点阵是个面心立方点阵，第一布里渊区是正菱形十二面体。面心立方点阵的倒易点阵是个体心立方点阵，第一布里渊区是截角八面体。 8.能隙（禁带）的起因：晶体中电子波的布喇格反射－周期性势场的作用。（边界处布拉格反射形成驻波，造成能量差） 9.第一布里渊区允许的波矢总数=晶体中的初基晶胞数N －每个初基晶胞恰好给每个能带贡献一个独立的k值；

－直接推广到三维情况考虑到同一能量下电子可以有两个相反的自旋取向，于是每个能带中存在2N个独立轨道。 －若每个初基晶胞中含有一个一价原子，那么能带可被电子填满一半； －若每个原子能贡献两个价电子，那么能带刚好填满；初基晶胞中若含有两个一价原子，能带也刚好填满。 绝缘体：至一个全满，其余全满或空（初基晶胞的价电子数目为偶数,能带不交 叠）2N. 金属：半空半满 半导体或半金属：一个或两个能带是几乎空着或几乎充满以外，其余全满 （半金属能带交叠） 10.自由电 子： 11.半导体的E-k关系：

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